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    Feeding strategies to alleviate the effect of heat stress on growth performance in broilers: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Animal Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Jack, Heidi Anna
    Broiler production is seen as critical to socio-economic development within the tropics. With the higher and rising temperatures of the tropics, heat stress is a major challenge of the industry. Of the many approaches used to alleviate heat stress, nutritional strategies have been seen as more economically viable in comparison to non- nutritional strategies used to alleviate heat stress. The current study was done to assess both the combined and specific impact of diet density (high fat versus low fat diets) and diet form (mash versus pelleted diets), on alleviating heat stress in broilers. Biological responses were monitored through growth performance and digestibility data. The experimental design used in the study was a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments from day 10 to day 34 of the trial period. Birds were subject to one of eight treatments which included a combination of one of two different temperatures (normal or elevated), one of two different diet types (high fat or low fat) and one of two different diet forms (mash or pellet). These treatments included Low Fat Mash under Normal Temperature conditions (LMN), Low Fat Mash under Elevated Temperature conditions (LME), Low Fat Pellet under Normal Temperature conditions (LPN), Low Fat Pellet under Elevated Temperature conditions (LPE), High Fat Mash under Normal Temperature conditions (HMN), High Fat Mash under Elevated Temperature conditions (HME), High Fat Pellet under Normal Temperature conditions (HPN) and High Fat Pellet under Elevated Temperature conditions (HPE). Pellet fed birds had a higher growth performance under elevated temperature and in phase 2 (day 21 to 34), had the highest (P = 0.016) feed intake (166.9 g/b/d) compared to other treatments which were all statistically equivalent. With respect to ileal nutrient intakes, the intake of fat for the overall period and the intake of AME for phase 2 was highest (P = 0.045 and P = 0.018 for fat and AME respectively) on pellet fed birds housed under elevated temperature. Also, these birds had the highest (P = 0.048) growth efficiency (16.8 MJ/kg per kilogram gain) compared to mash fed birds (18.8 MJ/kg per kilogram gain).
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    Investigation of energy partitioning in modern broiler chickens : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Poultry Nutrition at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Shatnawi, Khaldoun
    Studies were conducted to estimate the energetic efficiencies for fat deposition from different energy sources (carbohydrate, protein, soybean oil and tallow) and to determine the maximum protein deposition (Pdmax) and minimum body lipid to protein ratio (minL/P) of the modern broiler chickens. Energetic efficiencies for fat deposition were assessed by feeding birds extra energy from different energy sources when protein was limiting in the diet. Comparison of birds slaughtered before and after the dietary treatments were applied allowed the determination of the energy retained as fat or protein. In the first experiment (Chapter 3), the energetic efficiencies of fat deposition from vegetable oil and starch were estimated to be 0.82 and 0.69, respectively. In the second experiment (Chapter 4), the energetic efficiencies of fat deposition were estimated to be 0.93 from soybean oil and 0.90 from tallow, but there was no significant difference between soybean oil and tallow. In the third experiment (Chapter 5), the efficiency of energy deposition as fat from non-essential amino acid intake was calculated to be 0.63. In the fourth experiment (Chapter 6), the Pdmax and minL/P were determined by feeding diets not limited for protein with varying energy levels. The maximum daily protein deposition was predicted at 22 g/day. According to broken-line model, the rate of protein deposition increased when the apparent metabolisable energy intake above maintenance requirement (AMEIp) increased up to the break point of 1.2 MJ/day. Further increases of AMEIp did not lead to an increase in protein deposition rate whereas the fat deposition rate sharply increased. The body weight and energy intake affect the L/P ratio. Across all treatment groups, the minimum value of L/P ratio was observed at 0.31 for birds fed 1 MJ/day of AMEIp at 4 kg live body weight. From the knowledge of net energy requirements and considering the efficiency of metabolisable energy for fat and protein deposition from all experiments, a simple mechanistic growth model was developed for modern broilers (Chapter 7). The model simulates the daily growth of broilers and it was able to predicting the broiler performance and carcass composition under a variety of nutritional conditions. Moreover, the model was evaluated with a range of experimental data (Chapter 8) and prediction values were in close agreement with observed values. The relative prediction errors were 3.8% and 7.3%, for prediction of slaughter live body weight for dependent and independent dataset, respectively. In conclusion, the efficiencies of energy utilisation for fat deposition varied depending on energy sources with the highest values for soybean oil and tallow followed by starch and the lowest for protein. Modern broilers have an upper limit for protein deposition (22 g/day). The body weight and energy intake affect the L/P ratio and the minimal L/P ratio was observed at 0.31. The mechanistic growth model based on energy partitioning concepts can be a tool to predict the carcass composition and broiler performance and can deal adequately with the complexity of nutritional factors. The finding of this thesis is that the broiler performance can be improved by formulating the diet to maximise the protein deposition with minimum fat deposition. The maximum protein deposition can be achieved when the birds consumed 1.2 MJ/day of AMEIp or 2.5 MJ/day of AME intake, further energy intake will deposited as lipid
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    A survey of commercial small-scale poultry production systems and nutrient characterisation of local feed ingredients in Laos : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriScience at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2014) Phommasack, Outhen
    This thesis comprises of two separate studies. A survey of small-scale chicken production (layer and broiler) in Laos is presented in Part 1 and the characterisation of local feed ingredients is presented in Part 2. Part 1 examined aspects of demographic details, breeds and sources, management systems, labour, diseases, production parameters, marketing and farmer attitude in small-scale chicken farms. For the survey of layer farms, a total of 35 farmers from Xaythany and Naxaithong districts were interviewed. All producers were over 30 years of age. Almost 75% of interviewees were males, showing that males play a significant role in the leadership in the families. The average hen day production was found to be 0.65 and an average of 1.81 kg feed was required to produce a dozen eggs. It was observed that this feed conversion efficiency level was similar to those reported in some tropical countries, but poorer than the recommendation by breeding companies for modern layers (1.58 kg feed/dozen eggs). Hens were culled after 18 months of production (around 2 years of age). During this period, a hen produced an average of 242 eggs, which was lower than the 300 or more eggs expected for modern layers under optimum conditions. Number factors are responsible for the poor layer performance under small farm conditions in Laos, with poor management being the main cause. This problem can be solved by the involvement of government and better veterinary and extension services. The average mortality was 11%; diarrhoea and bird flu were the main causes associated with the deaths. Vaccines and drugs were regularly used by all farms. For the broiler survey, 7 broiler farms in Naxaithong district were surveyed. All farms operated under contract with a large company (Charoen Pokphand Laos Company). The annual broiler output per farm ranged from 15,000 to 24,000 birds. The number of production cycles per year and the type of breed provided are decided by the company. Three breeds are raised, namely Ross 308, Brown Nick and 3-line crossbreeds. The average market age was 8.6 weeks at an average body weight at 1.5 kg. The FCR (feed conversion ratio) was 2.1 kg feed/kg gain. Although all farms received good quality feed and regular monitoring from the CP Company, the feed efficiency was higher compared to breeding company standards (1.6 kg feed/kg gain). The average mortality was 1.4%. Ross 308 was found to be more susceptible to the hot environment than the other two breeds. Deaths in Ross 308 were related largely to the faster growth rate. The study reported in Part 2 aimed at characterising the nutrient contents of locally available poultry feedstuffs so that dependence on imported commercial feeds can be reduced. Fifteen local feedstuffs (rice bran, broken rice, cassava leaf meal, cassava root meal, coconut meal, fish meal, green banana meal, groundnut, leucaena leaf meal, maize, sesame seed, snail meal, soybean, sweet potato tuber meal and taro meal) were collected. Each sample was analysed for proximate composition, minerals and amino acids. Of the tested ingredients, fishmeal had the highest crude protein content (54.4 g/100 g), while sweet potato tuber meal had the lowest crude protein content (3.5 g/100 g). The highest crude fat value (65.0 g/100 g) determined for full-fat copra, followed by sesame and groundnut seeds (54.8 and 54.4 g/100 g, respectively). Roce bran had the highest fibre content (14.7 g/100 g) and snail meal the highest ash content (71.3 g/100 g). Snail meal had the highest calcium content (30.0 g/100 g) followed by fish meal (4.50 g/100 g). Snail meal was also rich in t iron, copper, manganese and zinc. Fish meal had high contents of amino acids. Whereas cassavas root meal had the lowest.
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    Development of an assay for the determination of dietary apparent ileal nitrogen and amino acid digestibilities in the meat chicken : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Animal Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1991) Yap, Kee Hor
    Biological procedures which quantify protein value are expected to beneficially influence efficiency of nutrient provision in dietary formulations for the livestock, industry. This thesis provides a review of two widely employed quantitative assessments, "Digestibility" and "Availability" and in the experimental section describes a series of experiments undertaken on meat chicken to refine assay procedures involved in the determination of protein and amino acid apparent ileal digestibility values. Five experiments were undertaken. (1a) A comparison of two feeding procedures with three diets differing in particle size with a view to evaluating the effect of feeding behaviour on the final composition of the test diet in the crop. (1b) Determination of crop residue composition associated with time following feeding with two feeding procedures and two diets differing in particle size. (2) A comparison of the effects of two slaughter procedures and two flushing solutions on ileal N digestibility of meat and bone meal. (3) A comparison of the effect of time of slaughter following feeding on ileal N values of two diets. (4) Determination of the effect of length of ileum on ileal N digestibility values of two diets. (5) Determination of the effect of age on ileal N and AA digestibilities of two diets. In 1a there was clear evidence that bird eating behaviour and particle size of the test diet influenced crop content proportions of a number of criteria, more notably chromium and nitrogen. For coarse particle diets an intubation feeding procedure produced a closer match of material in the crop with that of the untouched diet than a free access provision of food procedure. In 1b the results of the study were inconclusive and no satisfactory cause for inconsistencies that developed between treatments could be found. In 2, two slaughter procedures, euthanasia by sodium pentobarbitone and asphyxiation by carbon dioxide, resulted in significantly different (P<0.05) apparent ileal nitrogen (N) digestibility. Differences between flushing solutions, distilled water and physiological saline were small and not significant (P<0.05). In 3, for two diet types, N and dry matter (DM) digestibilities were relatively constant over sampling times of 2 to 5 hours following the start of feeding. Ileal digesta sampled quantities tended to be greatest at the 4 hour sampling interval. In 4, differences in N and DM digestibilities of digesta samples drawn from sections of the ileum up to 30 cm in length as measured from the ileo-caecal junction were generally small and non significant. In 5, bird age had no significant effect on N and DM digestibilities. The main conclusions drawn were that intubation better retained the integrity of food reaching the crop. Sodium pentobarbitone was a preferable method of slaughter. Ileal length sampled needed to be kept as short as consistant with providing adequate sample material and largest sample sizes were obtainable around 4 hours following the start of feeding.
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    The nutritional value of ryegrass-white clover leaf protein concentrate : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment [sic] of the requirements for the degree of Doctor Philosophy in Biochemistry at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1983) Johns, David Carville
    Leaf Protein Concentrate (LPC ) , which was manufactured from a mixture of Ryegrass and White Clover (Lolium perenne and Trifolium repens) at the Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre , was evaluated as a possible protein source for feeding to chickens . The nutritional value of LPC was compared to that of soybean meal ( SBM ) . LPC was shown to have a lower nutritional value than SBM in the growth trials . The addition of methionine or cystine to the diet containing LPC improved both food utilization and weight gain of the chickens . These growth parameters showed the greatest improvement when 2 g methionine/kg diet was added to the LPC diet. The additional quantity of 2g methionine/kg diet was similar to the amount of sulphur amino acid contributed by LPC to the d i e t ; 1.8 g sulphur amino acid from L PC /kg diet. When an equivalent amount of cystine (1.6g) to methionine , on a sulphur basis , was added to the LPC d i e t and fed to chickens , it was shown to support the same amount of growth and maintain a similar food utilisation level as additional methionine . LPC contributed only 0.6g cystine/kg of diet . As this was much lower than the added cystine and/or methionine , it was concluded that the availability of cystine in the whole diet was reduced by the presence of LPC rather than the lack of availability of cystine in LPC alone . The following information was also obtained : - (i) Pancreatic hypertrophy and increased pancreatic enzyme activity (trypsin and chymotrypsin ) occurred due to feeding the LPC diet . (ii) The invitro exhaustive enzyme digestibility study indicated that while the overall digestibility of LPC was approximately 6% lower than that of SBM, none of the individual amino acid digestibility estimates i n LPC diverged markedly from the mean . All LPC amino ac ids were released equally by enzyme hydrolysis . (iii) In contrast to the invitro findings , the in vivo mean amino acid availability estimates for the ingredient LPC (as measured in the excreta) were lower than the corresponding SBM estimates by approximately 1 5% . The cystine availability estimate for the ingredient LPC was only 5 1 . 2% in terms of corrected amino acid availability ( CAAA), and 1 1 . 9% in terms of apparent amino acid availability ( ApAAA). By comparison the cystine availability estimates for the ingredient SBM were 80 . 8% CAAA and 7 5 . 7 % ApAAA. When the diets containing LPC or SBM were assayed by the same technique , the differences in the amino acid availability estimates were markedly reduced . The availability estimates of cystine in the LPC diet were still lower than the other amino acid availability estimates for the LPC diet . These however were only 8-10% lower than the corresponding estimates for the SBM diet. (iv) The mean amino acid digestibility estimates, derived by analysis of the ileal contents of chickens fed with the LPC d i e t were 26% lower than those for chickens fed the SBM d i e t s . The cystine digestibility estimates for the LPC d i e t was approximately 45% lower than the corresponding cystine digestibility estimate for the SBM diet. These results indicated that digestion and/or absorption of the LPC diet was probably being retarded as compared with the SBM diet. (v) Supplementation of the LPC diet with the antibiotic , Neomix , gave an improvement in growth and an increase in the mean amino acid availability ( measured by excreta analysis ) of approximately 7%. This indicated that the gut microflora were influencing the nutritional value of LPC . Feeding the LPC diet in comparison to feeding the SBM diet also tended to increase the level of c1 9 cyclopropane fatty acid in the excreta. This indicated that feeding the LPC diet was influencing the nature and/or activity of the microfloral population . The physiological and metabolic effects of feeding r aw soybean meal and/or trypsin inhibitors , which have been reported in the literature, included pancreatic hypertrophy , increased pancreatic proteolytic enzyme activity , retardation of ileal protein digestibility and.an influence by gut microflora . Each of these factors were characteristic of chickens fed the 1PC diet. It was therefore concluded that the additional need for cystine or methionine by chickens fed the 1PC diet , was due to the presence of trypsin inhibitors in the 1PC . It was demonstrated, by feeding 1 - (methyl 14c) methionine that phenolic compounds were being methylated . However the need for detoxification of aromatic compounds , which required methionine (as a methyl donor ) and /or arginine ( ornithine ) , could not explain the growth depression experienced by chickens fed the unsupplemented 1PC diet. The feeding of 1- (methyl 14c) methionine in conjunction with the 1PC diet also indicated that the digestibility of methionine was not being hindered during the digestive process by preferential binding with other compounds in the 1PC diet. I t was concluded from the result s of this study that 1PC adequately supplemented with methionine , could b e a useful addition to the range of ingredients available for use in poultry feeds.