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    The impact of social relationships on cognitive performance in the older adult : emotional loneliness is detrimental to cognitive performance : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North
    (Massey University, 2019) Whitehouse, Catherine Mary
    The present study examined the influence of loneliness and objective social isolation on cognitive performance at baseline (time 1) and after two years (time 2) among older adults aged 65 - 84 years old. The exploration of the moderating role of objective social isolation on the relationship between loneliness and cognitive performance was investigated. The role education may have in moderating the relationship between loneliness, objective social isolation and cognitive performance was also investigated. This study extends previous work on loneliness and social isolation, and cognition in two ways. While previous research has found a link between loneliness, objective social isolation, and cognition, many studies have considered loneliness and objective social isolation independent of each other when investigating their relationship with cognition. This study investigated the relative and synergistic relationship between loneliness, objective social isolation and cognition. Secondly, Weiss (1973) conceptualised loneliness as emotional loneliness or social loneliness. Social loneliness as a risk factor for cognitive performance in the older adult has been overlooked. This study considered both emotional loneliness and social loneliness, as two different forms of loneliness that may influence cognition in the older adult. The current study examined the impact of three different types of social isolation (emotional loneliness, social loneliness and objective social isolation) on global cognition and cognitive domains (memory, fluency, language and visuospatial ability). Pre-existing data from the New Zealand Longitudinal Study of Ageing (NZLSA; 2010 and 2012) was used for analysis. The relationships between emotional loneliness, social loneliness and objective social isolation were examined using standard quantitative statistical procedures with linear hierarchical multiple regression being the primary technique. Results showed that loneliness (emotional and social) and objective social isolation may be differentially important for cognitive performance in the older adult. Emotional loneliness had an association with global cognition, verbal fluency, language and visuospatial ability, though not memory at baseline. At the two year follow-up emotional loneliness had an association with global cognition, memory, language, and visuospatial ability, though not verbal fluency. Social loneliness did not have an association with cognition at baseline, and was found to be a suppressor variable at the two year follow-up. Objective social isolation had an association at baseline with visuospatial ability only, which did not carry through to the two year analysis. Novel findings were that older adults who were emotional lonely and not socially isolated had poorer cognitive performance at baseline for global cognition, language and visuospatial tasks, than those who were emotionally lonely and socially isolated. Also older adults who had low levels of education and were socially isolated performed better in visuospatial tasks at baseline than older adults with low levels of education who were not socially isolated. Explanations of why emotional loneliness influence cognition is discussed, with a focus on the ‘lonely in the crowd’ subsample of older adults. Limitations of the study and implications for future research, such as need for longitudinal research that includes control variables such as personality factors, stress and sleep is also discussed.
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    Understanding subjective memory complaints in ageing : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) Burmester, Bridget R
    Everyday memory difficulties are a common experience with age, and cause considerable distress for many people when they are interpreted as potential indicators of age-related disease. However, research literature examining the relationship between these difficulties (known as subjective memory complaints; SMCs) and actual memory performance on neuropsychological tests has shown mixed results, suggesting that SMCs are not a pure reflection of memory ability, but instead that their aetiology is complicated and not fully understood. Both psychological and methodological factors are also implicated, although no research has yet comprehensively examined how a combination of these factors might predict SMCs. The current research aimed to test a new aetiological model of SMCs that incorporated a range of potential confounds. It was hypothesised that SMCs would be predicted by measures of processing speed and executive functioning, and that this relationship would be moderated by measures of anxiety and depression. First, a meta-analysis and systematic review of existing research on the relationship between subjective and objective memory was conducted as a platform to inform subsequent analyses. Then, Study A addressed current variation in assessment methods by describing differences in SMCs when assessed with both an open-ended measure and a prescriptive questionnaire. Study B examined how these differences in subjective reports related to objective memory performance. Finally, Study C tested the proposed aetiological model of SMCs. Study A showed that different measures of SMCs garnered non-overlapping reports. SMCs gathered via the open-ended measure were fewer in number, but rated as more distressing, than those endorsed on the questionnaire. Spontaneous reports appeared to be more ecologically valid reflections of SMCs, although questionnaire assessments were by their nature more robust to a “catch 22” situation whereby some endorsed SMCs were not reported spontaneously (perhaps due to memory failures in themselves). Study B found that neither method of assessing SMCs produced reports that were significantly convergent with objective measures of memory functioning. Study C found partial support for the hypothesised aetiological model. SMCs (as assessed by the questionnaire) were inversely related to processing speed, but only when depressive symptoms were relatively high. Collectively, results offer important insights into the interaction of cognitive and psychological factors in explaining SMCs, and highlight the previously undelineated context in which processing speed contributes to SMCs.
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    Investigating working memory and metamemory in old age : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Craighead, Cheryll L
    An investigation of metamemory for working memory was conducted in a group of older adults aged 60 to 74 years using a variation of the Daneman and Carpenter (1980) reading span task. There were twelve trials in each experiment, with each trial containing six sentences. Participants had to assess whether each sentence was true or false as well as remembering the last word of each sentence in correct order. In Experiment 1 words were phonologically similar (rhyming) and dissimilar (non-rhyming), whereas Experiment 2 presented one syllable (short) words and two syllable (long) words Half the participants were asked to predict how well they would remember the words and half were asked to postdict how well they had recalled the words. Participants were also asked to complete the Metamemory Functioning Questionnaire (Gilewski, Zelinski & Schaie, 1990) for a self-assessment of memory and this was compared to their memory performance on the recall task. Results indicated that older adults recalled more rhyming words than non-rhyming words, and more short words than long words. They overestimated the number of non-rhyming words they would remember but their estimates fluctuated in the same pattern as actual recall for the rhyming and non-rhyming words showing some accuracy in their metamemory. However, people unexpectedly estimated that they would do better with long than short words. For long words postdictions matched recall better than predictions which showed that older adults were able to gather information about their performance during the task. There was no correlation between the MFQ scores and the recall accuracy of the memory task probably because the questionnaire measured more general aspects of everyday memory, whereas the recall task involved a single and very specific aspect of memory. When compared to the younger adults the older adults showed poorer recall performance and overestimation was larger for older adults. These results showed us that to some extent, older adults are able to estimate their memory performance, using metamemory in a complex memory task.
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    The effects of social isolation on cognition : social loneliness reduces cognitive performance in older adults : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Whitehouse, Catherine
    The present cross-sectional study examined the influence of social isolation on cognitive performance among older adults aged 65-84 years old. This study extended previous work on social isolation and cognition in two ways. While previous research has found a link between social isolation and cognition, few have examined the relationship between different forms of social isolation and different domains of cognition simultaneously. Secondly, a link between social loneliness and cognition has not been examined. Therefore, the current study examined the impact of four different types of social isolation (social loneliness, emotional loneliness, perceived social support and objective social isolation) on global cognition and cognitive domains (memory, fluency, language and visuospatial ability). The cross-sectional data from the New Zealand Longitudinal Study of Ageing (NZLSA) (2010) was used for analysis. The NZLSA study included questions about demographic information, mental and physical well-being, loneliness, social support, social networks and cognition. Using multiple regression analyses the influence of social isolation on cognitive functions was investigated. Results showed that various forms of social isolation may be differentially important for cognitive performance in the older adult, with social loneliness the only measure of social isolation that influences cognition. The results also suggested that if a form of social isolation affects cognition, the different cognitive domains such as global cognition, fluency, language and visuospatial ability respond in a similar pattern. Explanations of why social loneliness influences cognition is discussed. Limitations of the study and implications for future research, such as the need for a longitudinal study that simultaneously assesses the links between the various forms of social isolation and cognition, is also discussed.
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    Assessing cognitive functioning in older adults and its relationship to quality of life : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Callow, Lauren May
    Cognitive impairment of any magnitude carries an undetermined societal and individual cost. The desire to accurately predict cognitive decline at an early stage is sought-after as robust cognitive health and function in later life is desirable. Knowing who is at risk and what those risks may be is imperative for targeting interventions to those in need. The lack of nationally representative information regarding cognitive functioning means that there is little information about base rates of cognitive functioning. This represents a problem in terms of gauging the incidence of cognitive impairment and difficulties related to planning for social and health expenditure for the ageing population. This thesis explores the validity and reliability of the Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination-Revised and develops New Zealand norms for the measure using data from the New Zealand Longitudinal Study of Ageing. These demographically stratified norms will help to determine those people who may be more vulnerable to a dementing process. The information is applied in the context of examining the impact of cognitive functioning on quality of life; an important concept to consider in research. In article one, a pilot study of the use of the Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination-Revised (ACE-R) with older community dwelling adults, the utility of the measure was supported. In article two, the ACE-R was integrated into a nationwide longitudinal study of older adults. Stratified demographic norms were created. This is the first known nationally representative New Zealand study to provide evidence of the impact of age, gender and ethnicity on measures of cognitive functioning. In article three this information was applied in the study of the relationship between cognitive functioning and quality of life. Results suggested that cognitive functioning has a small significant association with quality of life in older age and a much larger association in those who display cognitive functioning difficulties. This research adds to the research base in New Zealand by providing representative norms from which older adults can be compared in a meaningful and specific way.