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    Assessing the sustainability of indigenous food systems in Pacific Small Island Developing States (PSIDS) : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Health Nutrition & Food Systems at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) Vogliano, Christopher
    Indigenous Peoples living in Pacific Small Island Developing States (PSIDS) who have traditionally relied on locally grown, biodiverse foods for their primary source of nutrition are now seeing the adverse impacts of changing diets and climate change. Shifts away from traditional diets towards modern, imported and ultra-processed foods are likely giving rise to noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, which are now the leading causes of mortality. Climate change is magnifying health inequities and challenging food and nutrition security through heavier rains, longer droughts, and rising sea levels. COVID-19 has highlighted additional challenges for those living in PSIDS, exposing vulnerabilities across global food systems. Using Solomon Islands as a proxy for the broader Pacific, this thesis aims to assess PSIDS food system sustainability, including diet quality and diversity, as well as perceived food system transitions. Findings from this thesis can help strengthen discourse around promoting sustainable and resilient food systems and help achieve food and nutrition security targets set by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
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    New Zealand's food system is unsustainable : a survey of the divergent attitudes of agriculture, environment and health sector professionals towards eating guidelines : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Jones, Rebekah
    Background: The United Nation’s (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) address the adverse health and environmental changes associated with changes in the food and nutrition system. In one of its many sustainable development initiatives, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO) has called for sustainable diets, which align with SDG 2, Zero Hunger, and SDG 12, Sustainable Consumption and Production. The inclusion of sustainability characteristics in New Zealand’s (NZ) eating and activity guidelines (EAGs) would contribute to directly addressing the SDGs and lead to achieving sustainable diets. This study aimed to evaluate the agreement among sectoral professionals of including sustainability characteristics within the guidelines. Methods: Professionals within the agriculture, environment and health sectors were invited to complete an online survey to establish agreement with sustainability characteristics. Opinion and attitude questions were completed using a 5-item Likert scale. One-way ANOVA analyses were conducted to compare the level of agreement with the inclusion of sustainability statements of the three professional sector groups. A one-way ANCOVA analysis was undertaken to detect a difference in means of the sectoral levels of agreement whilst controlling for covariates. Post-hoc tests were used to determine where the significant differences in opinion lay between the sector groups. Results: Overall, 298 (65% female) respondents completed the survey from the agriculture (37%), environment (22%) and health (41%) sectors. Two-thirds (66%) of respondents were over 35 years and 90% had a tertiary education. Two-thirds (63%) of respondents disagreed with the statement that NZ’s current food system is sustainable; sector respondents from health (77%) and environment (78%) had greater disagreement than agriculture (35%) (P = 0.00). Overall, 77% of respondents agreed that sustainability characteristics should be included in guidelines; with greater agreement from health (90%) and environment (84%) versus agriculture (58%) (P = 0.00). Five sustainability characteristics received unanimously high levels of agreement (> 90%) for inclusion: dietary diversity (97%), sustainable seafood (90.8%), to limit processed foods (90.7%), reduced food waste (95.3%) and sustainable lifestyle behaviours (97.2%). Agreement for eight sustainability characteristics was higher for health and environment versus agricultural sector (P < 0.05). There was relatively lower level of agreement from all three sectors, particularly environmental (68.7%), to consume recommended serves of dairy products. Only 38.5% of all respondents agreed with the inclusion of “organic food produce”. Respondents who agreed with the inclusion of sustainability characteristics were more likely to be familiar with the EAGs and to agree NZs current food system is unsustainable. Conclusion: Professionals from the agriculture, environment and health sectors of New Zealand largely support the inclusion of sustainability characteristics within NZ’s EAGs. However, there are areas of divergence that need to be addressed for their successful development and implementation.
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    Review of the potential for harmonisation of sustainable food system indicators, and the assessment of key aspects of nutrition and health in two atoll Islands of Kiribati, a West Pacific Island State : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Eme, Paul Eze
    Sustainable diets, which links nutrition and food systems, cuts across all seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), with particular relevance to SDG 2. Despite much recent attention being given to sustainable diets and food systems, methodologies for assessing sustainable diets are complex and may not be generally applicable. This thesis describes a series of studies, which aimed to review the methodologies for assessing sustainable diets and potential for development of a harmonized indicators; assess the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) on nutrition of the households in South Tarawa and Butaritari Islands; conduct dietary assessments amongst the household members using a 24-h diet recall and weighed food records methodology in the Islands; and carry out anthropometric and body adiposity measurements of the householders and secondary school students. A total 468 households were randomly selected in South Tarawa (n=161) and Butaritari (n=307) for the 24-h dietary recall and a sub-sample of 28 households participated in the weighed food record. Another 320 subjects were recruited for the KAP study on nutrition; and 483 adults and 194 adolescents were selected for the anthropometric and body adiposity study respectively. Food consumption patterns of the households in the islands reflected high consumption of non-traditional diets and refined foods, which manifested in inadequate micronutrient intake estimates and low dietary diversity The KAP study showed the majority of respondents had good knowledge and attitudes towards good nutrition, however, these were not adequately reflected in their nutritional practices. Based on measures of bioelectric impedance, two-thirds of the subjects (68.4%) had a very high body fat (BF) %, 22.2% had high BF%, 8.8% had normal BF% and 0.6% had low BF%. Based on body mass index (BMI), about three-quarters of the subjects (73.2%) were obese and 22.5% were overweight. Obesity prevalence among the adolescents was low based on BMI and BF% criteria. In conclusion, despite the investments on nutrition programmes in Kiribati, no change was noticed from the results of 1985 Kiribati National Nutrition Survey and the findings of this study. Policies and interventions to sustainably improve diets in Kiribati, and thus reduce diet-related morbidity and mortality, need to address elements of sustainable diets.
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    Seasonal rural household food insecurity in Zambia : a case study of Mutanda : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Applied Science (Rural Development), Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Boardman, Murray P
    Sub-Saharan Africa is recognised as having a high proportion of food insecure people, most of whom live in rural areas and are dependent on subsistence agricultural production. Mutanda, a rural locality in Zambia, was studied to identify the seasonal characteristics of rural household food security. Two surveys (Food Consumption (n = 102) and Farm Systems (n = 42)) were undertaken using both objective and subjective methods. Household food security was assessed using daily meals as a proxy indicator, supported by perception of hunger data. Both the relative size (p < 0.001) and frequencies (p < 0.001) of the daily meals were significantly lower at minimum food consumption (mid December) compared to maximum food consumption (late May). On average, the effective quantity of daily meals at minimum food consumption was reduced to 32% of the intake at maximum food consumption (p < 0.001). During food shortages, 63% of households considered they suffered from a degree of hunger, although no household indicated hunger was a serious issue when food is plentiful. These findings strongly support a conclusion that the Mutanda area suffers from transitory (seasonal) food insecurity. The rationalisation of food consumption is attributed to the vulnerability of being dependent on seasonal agricultural production and the limited opportunities to augment the food supply using other sources. The primary source of food for 98% of households was from their farm/garden. Maize is the dominant crop with only 30% of farmers investing in some form of agricultural inputs. As a secondary source of food, 36% of households use income as a means of food acquisition. The survey results highlight households using income to purchase food had a greater quantity of meals at minimum food consumption (p < 0.001), although the use of improved storage did not show a significant increase in food consumption during food shortages (p = 0.227). The results also present qualified support that seasonal variation in food consumption can be reduced through an increase in farm area, diversification of crops and the increased use of agricultural inputs. As the study concludes that no single intervention eliminated the seasonal variation in food security, multiple strategies are presented to reduce the seasonal dependence of agricultural production. These include establishing a formalised local food market, increasing agricultural production and improving storage utilisation through education. The implications of these strategies on policy, both for governments and development organisations, are briefly discussed. Keywords: Food security, food insecurity, daily meals, food consumption, seasonality, agricultural production, Zambia.
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    Development and predictive modelling of set yoghurt as a made-in-transit (MIT) product : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Ab Rashid, Nor Khaizura
    The manufacture of food during distribution, a concept known as “made-in-transit” (MIT) manufacture, has the potential to expand the distribution reach, extend shelf-life, and provide the customer with the freshest possible product. Benefits for the manufacturer include maximising throughput while minimising manufacturing space and inventory. This concept is new, with mushrooms being the only MIT food developed so far. In this study, the feasibility of developing an MIT product from a fermented food was determined using set yoghurt as a model system. An MIT yoghurt was developed through the alteration of some of the yoghurt manufacturing parameters (e.g. milk base formulation, heat treatment, starter culture composition and fermentation temperature), extending the yoghurt fermentation time from about 4 h to 168 h (7 days). It was found necessary to fortify the milk base (reconstituted skim milk powder) with a suitable protein-containing dairy ingredient (sodium caseinate and milk protein concentrate were found best) to rectify the poor texture of the resulting yoghurt. Descriptive testing and acceptance testing using trained and consumer sensory panels, respectively, showed that MIT yoghurts were significantly different from conventionally made yoghurt, but were more acceptable. The yoghurts were found to have adequate shelf lives post fermentation, partly owing to the use of ultra-high temperature (UHT) sterilization of the yoghurt milk base prior to inoculation to ensure the absence of starter bacteria competitors. As the production of MIT yoghurt involves a relatively long, temperature dependent fermentation, it was considered useful to develop models for predicting the effects of both time and temperature on such dependent variables as starter bacteria count, pH, and firmness. A predictive microbiology approach was taken. The modified Gompertz equation was found to model adequately the time dependence of starter bacteria growth and firmness development during fermentation, while the modified logistic equation was found adequate for modelling pH decline. These two equations are primary models, whose parameters were then related to temperature using the square root (Ratkowsky) equation as a secondary model. Combination of the primary and secondary models provides means of predicting the effects of both time and temperature simultaneously. Comparison of predictions with data generated in extrapolation and interpolation experiments proved the efficacy of the models. The work described in this thesis demonstrates the potential of the MIT concept for a fermented food. The concept could be applied to many fermented foods.
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    Global protein nutrition : essential amino acids availability : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Technology in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Sarkar, Arnab
    Information on protein production and consumption by country and by food type is well known and accepted, and is available on the internet from FAOSTAT. However, this database contains no information about the nutritional value of those proteins and is not corrected for digestibility, so is not possible to identify where there may be insufficiencies of protein nutrition or of particular essential amino acids. In this work, the data from FAOSTAT is corrected for true protein digestibility values and amino acid composition of the main food protein types, to develop a model of protein nutrition that identifies current patterns of essential amino acid (EAA) availability in different countries. It was found that a population lacking in total protein supply could still get all the required EAA in the required amounts if the consumed food pattern is designed properly. Forty countries were identified as having a lower protein supply than 56 g. per day per capita, but only 13 countries were estimated to receive an inadequate supply of essential amino acids. Lysine deficiency was most common in these 13 countries due to consumption of a high proportion of protein from cereals, which are a poor source of lysine, because of both composition and poor digestibility. Thus a greater quantity of low quality protein such as cereal protein is needed to meet the recommended requirement of all the essential amino acids, particularly lysine. The impact of income and specifically rapid per capita income growth on diet over time and by different socioeconomic classes is studied for India. This study found that food distribution and ability to purchase nutritionally adequate foods was dependent on income of an individual person. Cereals continued to constitute the main category of food consumed in both rural and urban India. There were large rural-urban and inter-state differences in the monthly consumption of even the basic food items. Rural Gujarat was the only region in this study where inadequate supply of lysine was observed for the population in the all-Gujarat average figure, at 95.9%. The nutritional requirement of elderly population, mainly increased RDA of protein intake and role of essential amino acids were studied, considering that the proportion of population aged 60 or over will be 22% in 2050 compared to 11% in 2009. Different protein sources have been shown in the literature to stimulate muscle protein synthesis in varying degrees in elderly population. The most important factor was the amount of essential amino acids in the protein, in particular, leucine. Differences in digestibility and bioavailability of certain protein-rich foods may also influence muscle protein synthesis. During the World Summit on Food Security in 2009, it was recognized that by 2050 there will a requirement to supply 70% additional food to the global population. One of the options to increase food supply and to decrease the environmental pressure of current food production system is to minimise the waste. It is also important to plan an integrated approach about agricultural innovation and population health which will help us to prepare a matrix to supply the nutritional quality of food to the future world. It was also concluded that cereals were the major source of protein and calories for nearly half of the world’s population including China, India and sub-Saharan African countries. The improvement in the cereals would be helpful to close the inadequacy gaps in protein and essential amino acids in many countries by increasing the essential amino acids in plant crops with emphasis on lysine and leucine, e.g. by genetically modified food crops specific requirements to meet future demand for protein and EAA are described.
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    Factors affecting cassava adoption in Southern Province of Zambia : a case study of Mazabuka District : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Agri-Commerce at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2011) Phiri, Tionenji; Phiri, Tionenji
    Southern Province of Zambia is a drought prone area and the main crop that is grown is maize which requires a high amount of rainfall. As a result maize does not do well in the area and there are frequent food shortages. The Government and Non- Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have been promoting cassava technology which is drought tolerant to improve the food security in the area. However, the adoption of cassava technologies has been low. The findings of this study will inform the development of more effective strategies to improve food security in southern province of Zambia and it has done this by exploring the cassava promotion programme. A single case study was used to investigate the factors that affect cassava adoption in Mazabuka district. Purposive and snowball sampling methods were used to select participants for interviews and observations. 40 farmers who included opinion leaders and 6 key informants were interviewed. The data was analysed using qualitative data methods. The results of the study indicated that although a small number of farmers continue to grow cassava, the cassava promotion programme was a flawed programme because cassava did not meet the needs of the majority of the farmers. There was a mix of complex and interrelated factors that affected the adoption of cassava. These included internal and external factors to the farm and farm household and those related specifically to the characteristics of cassava relative to the farmers’ existing crop of maize. Cassava is a substitute crop to maize. The result of the study indicated that the farmers’ adoption decision was based on the fact that they wanted a crop that would not only meet their food needs but also income. Cassava is a substitute crop and the farmers compared it with maize, an existing crop, which provided them with both food and income. Processing facilities and a market supported by government policy existed for maize and not for cassava. Land tenure was the internal factor, but not as a result of the length of time the lease was held, but because of the conditions imposed on the leasers in terms of crops they were able to grow. The most important factors were external factors and these included government policy and an aspect of extension service delivery. A competitive government policy that supported processing and marketing facilities for maize, undermined cassava, for which there was no processing facilities and only a small local market. Lack of training and knowledge amongst the local government agricultural extension personnel as to how to grow and process cassava impacted also on farmers’ knowledge and hence adoption of cassava. Although the inputs for growing cassava were provided for free, they were supplied at the wrong time and this impacted also on farmers’ willingness to grow the crop. The research highlights the importance of using bottom-up and not top down approaches in food security programmes. The results suggest that it is important for food security policy and development interventions to understand the needs of farmers in terms of food, income and livelihoods.