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Geoheritage and Geodiversity Assessment Framework for Practical Application to Geoconservation of the Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand
(OICC Press, 2022-02-07) Zakharovskyi V; Nemeth K; Gravis I; Twemlow C
Life on Earth is influenced by abiotic nature, providing resources and shelter for living beings on the Earth. Hence, this part of nature should be well treated and protected. Study of geodiversity can facilitate education about abiotic nature and processes occurring around us. Geodiversity as a discipline is relatively young, but worthy of more attention and development. As well as a stand-alone scientific field, it may draw on other scientific disciplines in understanding the connection between natural materials and abiotic processes. Our research explores the paradigm of geodiversity and defines its meanings and elements. This will help us make the first steps in developing a methodology of assessment of geodiversity for any type of territory on our planet. This article provides a conceptual framework, which is based on detailed description of the methodology. Additionally, it will build a better understanding about the connections between abiotic and biotic factors in the environment, and human society within that environment. Here we provide a globally applicable method, using the Coromandel Peninsula as a case study. Coromandel Peninsula is in the north part of the North Island of New Zealand. This environmentally diverse and ecologically rich region is shaped by interactions between volcanic activities and terrestrial/shallow marine sedimentation, potentially providing a rich geodiversity. A systematic table defining the elements of geodiversity is the main product of our research, and we demonstrate how these elements can be assessed in a simple way to define values of facets of abiotic nature, ultimately resulting in a holistic, integrated, and complete view of our unliving environment. This study is an initial step in building a common system for assessment of geodiversity of any part of our world using the most available data and records as a foundational database.
Geology of the Weber region, North Island, East Coast, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Earth Science, School of Agriculture and Environment
(Massey University, 2019) Harvey, Hannah
Geological mapping of the East Coast Basin has tended to be at a broad scale with detailed mapping confined to a few specific areas of interest. The East Coast Basin is a petroliferous region and therefore of interest for petroleum exploration, however, further detailed mapping and sedimentological research is needed to have a better appreciation of the reservoir potential of the basin. Mapped geological boundaries are inferred based on broad tectonic features and structures, and little sedimentology has been undertaken. The current geological understanding is that this area contains a succession of Late Cretaceous (70 Ma) to Late Miocene (~5 Ma) sandstone, limestone, marl, flysch and mudstone facies. Few potential reservoir units are mapped or received detailed analysis and source rock has been an ongoing enigma due to known oil and gas seeps but low Total Organic Content results in most previously studied samples. The purpose of this research is to produce a high- resolution 1:25 000 geological map and undertake biostratigraphical, petrological, structural and paleo-environmental studies to help differentiate the Miocene aged geology of the area. Findings indicate the area is structurally complex with many faults, folds, including the Akitio Syncline, and local unconformities. Within the stratigraphic sequences identified both macro and micro fauna provide depositional environment and age control. Sedimentological and petrographic analysis of the major units also indicate variability in depositional environments from abyssal to shallow marine. Key areas have been located to provide accurate ages throughout the depositional sequence. This project will contribute to current research on the petroleum reservoir potential of the East Coast Basin.
Paleoenvironmental analysis of quaternary strata in the Levin area : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Quaternary Science at Massey University
(Massey University, 1991) Sewell, Alan Henry
Marine transgression during the Last Interglacial resulted in widespread inundation of the southern Manawatu area. The Otaki Formation constitutes the relatively thick blanket of predominantly marine sand deposited at the height of the transgression and is now exposed in a partially dissected marine terrace abutting the Tararua Range. Sedimentation was controlled by basement block faulting related to a regional strike-slip tectonic regime on the south eastern margin of the South Wanganui Basin. Wave-induced longshore currents from the north-west supplied abundant sediment to the coast. North-east of Levin the Kairanga Trough, occupying a north-east-trending structural depression between uplifted basement blocks, formed the centre of an embayment during the transgression. Tide-dominated depositional processes predominated around the margins of the embayment. In the Forest Lakes area, the absence of seaward barriers resulted in an open wave-dominated coastline. Between Ohau and Shannon mixed wave/tide processes predominated. Stabilisation of sea level resulted in shoreline progradation which was especially marked south of Levin where a dune belt formed, mantling the coastal cliff and later migrating inland. Retreat of the sea was followed by differential uplift and dissection of the newly exposed marine terrace. Two later marine transgressions cut treads in the earlier marine terrace, their strandlines being controlled by the previously established drainage pattern.·Ameliorating climate associated with the major sea level regression of the Last Glacial was accompanied by several phases of loess and minor dune sand accumulation on the exposed marine terraces. At the same time large areas of the terrace coverbeds were removed due to river aggradation. Final truncation of the Last Interglacial marine terraces occurred during the Holocene transgression. Tectonic warping of the marine terraces is continuing along pre-existing basement faults.
Late quaternary deposits of the eastern shore of Lake Wairarapa, North Island, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Soil Science at Massey University
(Massey University, 1990) Mitchell, Alison Gislaine
The lower Wairarapa Valley was an estuary as late as 6 500 years ago. Since then sediments from the Ruamahanga and Tauherenikau Rivers have deposited large loads of sediment into the area, prograding the eastern shore and changing the system from an estuary into lakes and rivers. The aims of this study were to investigate the late Quaternary deposits and soils of the eastern shore of Lake Wairarapa, using the information gained to look at the way in which infilling has taken place. The surface geology and soils of the study area were mapped. The mapping units were described and defined. Some chemical tests were carried out on selected soil samples. The order and method of infilling of the deposits are discussed.
Some aspects of the cenozoic geology of the Moawhango River region, in the Army training area in Waiouru, North Island, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Quaternary Geology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1994) Williams, John Kim
Late Tertiary marine strata of the Waiouru Formation were unconformably deposited on a dissected Late Cretaceous peneplain surface of unusually high relief formed on Torlesse Supergroup greywacke at Waiouru. Central North Island, New Zealand. Waiouru is uniquely located on the southern boundary of the Taupo Volcanic Zone and the northern margin of the Wanganui Basin, an infilled Pliocene basin now subject to Plio-Pleistocene uplift. Two transgressive episodes are identified. The first involved submergence of the peneplain in the Neogene, when Kapitean mudstone was deposited. Then a general marine shallowing occurred around the New Zealand landmass which saw uplift of Waiouru towards the end of the Kapitean Stage, followed by a period of sub-aerial erosion. The second transgressive episode was initiated by subsidence of the Wanganui Basin in the Pliocene, which led to onlap of coarse shallow-water sandstones during the Opoitian Stage. Basement subsidence tended to result in vertical rather than horizontal migration of the shoreline. No evidence has been found for previously recognised eustatic sealevel cycles, due possibly to masking by strong tidal conditions throughout the Opoitian sequence; Waiouru being located on the northern edge of the Pliocene Kuripapango Strait. Eventually, shallow seas supported a faunal population sufficient to produce widespread carbonate skeletal fragments that formed extensive shell limestone beds at the top of the Waiouru Formation. Rapid lateral and vertical changes in the facies are interpreted as due to rapidly changing local depositional conditions. These were caused by the submerging basement initially forming a steep coast with at least two offshore islands. Marine infilling occurred within former incised river valleys 3 km wide and over 300 m in depth. Erosion of local greywacke contributed to the Opoitian sedimentation, as did a granitic source, probably in North-west Nelson, with materials transported from this latter source by currents propagating through the Kuripapango Strait. The presence of abundant granite-derived micas in Opoitian strata, yet their absence in the Kapitean strata provide a limiting age for the arrival of micas in Wanganui Basin strata. As the Wanganui Basin depocentre moved southwards, offlap and emergence occurred with Plio-Pleistocene uplift. The paleo-Moawhango River established its course in the newly uplifted strata, forming superimposed gorges where it cut into exposed basement. Except for initially deposited basal strata, dips in the Neogene marine strata are almost all uniformly consistent with the regional dip. Mapping of the shell limestone beds has shown post-Opoitian development of a small scale (<2 km wide) anticline and a minor associated fault. To the south of the study area, the Waipipian age Taihape Mudstone overlies the Waiouru Formation. The contact between the two is interpreted to be the Opoitian-Waipipian boundary and thus the Waiouru Formation was deposited within the Opoitian Stage.
Late quaternary pollen stratigraphy, geology and soils of an area near Greytown : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Soil Science at Massey University
(Massey University, 1987) Tompkins, Joanna Olive
In the southern Wairarapa Valley there are extensive gravel fans, built by the Tauherenikau, Waiohine, and Waingawa Rivers. The fans form the Waiohine Surface which is lapped by a complex of Holocene fluvial, lacustrine and estuarine deposits. At the toe of the fans, peat deposits have accumulated over early Holocene sediments. This study involved; a) detailed mapping of the Quaternary deposits and soils and, b) analysis of pollen stratigraphy from continuous peat deposits in an area south of Greytown, in order to establish the Late Quaternary vegetative and environmental changes in the area. Detailed mapping showed that the c. 6,000 years B.P. Holocene high sea level did not encroach the area as was previously believed. After the formation of the Waiohine Surface c.10,000 years B.P., the Waiohine and possibly Tauherenikau Rivers infilled the area with aggradational gravels and sands. At c.8,500 years B.P. these river systems left the area and, peat deposits began accumulating soon after. The pollen spectrum, dated from c.8,500 years B.P. at the base, to c.5,500 years B.P. at the surface showed that the vegetation in the area suffered little change during the period of peat accumulation. Substantial areas of shrub, herbaceous and swamp communities existed in the valley, in addition to a Dacrydium cupressinum dominated podocarp-hardwood forest. Stands of Dacrycarpus dacrydioides were prominent on many wetter sites. A podocarp-hardwood complex, with areas of Nothofagus existed in the adjacent ranges. Climatic deterioration may have caused the rise in Nothofagus at the expense of the podocarps after 6,000 years B.P. The steady decline of D. dacrydioides with respect to D. cupressinum between 6,000 years B.P. and 5,000 years B.P. however, is a result of local drying around the bog. Fluctuations in vegetation are not of sufficient magnitude to justify the use of pollen zones.
The effect of land use on benthic communities in Hawkes Bay streams of differing geology : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1999) Gibson, Jason Ross
Benthic macroinvertebrate and periphyton communities of streams draining four different land use types within four distinct geological types were sampled between December 1996 and January 1997. Catchment land use comprised either standing mature or logged exotic forest, native forest, or hill country pasture. The geological types of these catchments were either Mesozoic sandstone-greywacke, Pleistocene-greywacke, Tertiary mudstone, or limestone in origin. Pastoral stream invertebrate community structure was significantly different from that found in forested streams, with no clear distinction separating communities from standing exotic, logged exotic, and native forest sites. Pastoral communities were dominated by dipterans and trichopterans. while in contrast, macroinvertebrate communities in streams draining sandstone-greywacke catchments were dominated by ephemeropterans and plecopterans, showing a clear influence of catchment geology on benthic macroinvertebrate communities. This sandstone-greywacke effect appeared to be independent of land use. Periphyton biomass was greatest in pastoral and exotic sites, particularly those draining limestone catchments. High nutrient and conductivity levels, both of which are characteristic of limestone streams, appeared to override the effect of light restrictions on periphyton growth in exotic forest sites. Overall, both geology and land use played major roles in determining the structure of stream benthic communities, with factors such as altitude and stream temperature also important influences on these communities. In November and December 1997, nutrient, shade, and disturbance effects were examined in periphyton communities colonising artificial substrates. These substrates were left in the 8 forested Hawkes Bay streams for 28 days with disturbance treatment substrates being physically abraded every 7 days. Nutrients (N + P) were added to nutrient treatment substrates and polythene cloth was used to create an artificially shaded environment for shade treatment substrates. Light availability and percentage canopy cover had the greatest effect upon periphyton, with light limitation being exhibited in closed canopy systems. Nutrient supply was also a factor determining periphyton biomass at both open and closed sites, although only up to a limit. Physical disturbance successfully removed organic matter from substrates as well as reducing chlorophyll a levels at open sites, however light and nutrient levels were more important determinants of chlorophyll a concentrations. In summary, both land use and geology play a considerable role in influencing both macroinvertebrate community structure and periphyton biomass. The geological influence was mediated through direct effects on nutrient inputs into the stream (as measured by conductivity), as well as by the indirect influence upon stream water temperatures. The influence of land use on benthic communities is predominantly as a result of shade levels created by vegetation types and enrichment levels derived from agriculturally influenced land. These results are of particular importance when comparing or analysing results from studies involving different land use types, particularly when these land uses cover a range of altitudes or are found in more than one geological type.
Benthic communities of the Whanganui River catchment : the effects of land use and geology : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1999) Horrox, Jonathan Vaughan
The response of macroinvertebrate communities and freshwater mussels to variation associated with land use and geology was investigated in small headwaters of the Whanganui River catchment in the North Island of New Zealand. Conductivity and water clarity were higher in streams with soft tertiary/quaternary sedimentary geology, independent of land use. These soft geology catchments, when forested, had distinctive community structure often involving high relative abundances of Ephemeroptera. Pastoral agriculture resulted in a lower diversity and abundance of pollution sensitive taxa. Impacts of pastoral land use were accentuated by soft sedimentary geology culminating in low diversity and abundance in pasture streams with soft geology. Multivariate analysis showed that community structure varied significantly depending on the combination of land use and geology type present, with land use as the most significant factor. However, variations in geology may mask the effects of land use between catchments. In the main Whanganui River, taxonomic diversity and numbers of pollution sensitive taxa decreased downstream. This was correlated with reduced periphyton biomass and increased suspensoids. Estimates of macroinvertebrate community structure differed between artificial substrate and kick samples collected from the same sites. Shell morphology of the freshwater mussel Hyridella menziesi was not correlated with water chemistry. One site near the northern boundary of the Whanganui River catchment contained mussels with distinct shell morphology. A possible explanation involving stream capture by tectonic movements is considered. Shell erosion was correlated with channel width suggesting shell erosion is greater in larger waterways. Lack of demarcation in shell growth annuli meant accurate estimates of mussel age were not possible. Poor demarcation is likely to result from non seasonal patterns of environmental variation.
The geology of the lower Pohangina Valley, Manawatu, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Earth Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2015) Rees, Callum
The geology of the lower Pohangina Valley has been mapped at a scale of 1:30,000. This has involved the reclassification of formations described by Carter (1972) in northern Pohangina and correlation of stratigraphy and stratigraphic nomeclamenture to both the Whanganui and Dannevirke subdivisions (Fleming, 1953; Lillie, 1953). Pohangina geology has been linked to the cyclostratigraphy preserved within the Whanganui Basin (Naish, et al, 1998; e.t.c.) via tephrochronology and biostratigraphy, allowing basin wide correlation. The Kaimatira Pumice Sand Formation (Fleming, 1953) is recognised within the study area by the identification of the Potaka Tephra, allowing an upper boundary to be placed upon the Takapari Formation of Carter (1972). Kai Iwi Group sediments are mapped near the axis of the Pohangina Fauted Monocline allowing correlation to the Beehive Creek, Cullings Gully and Finnis Road sections to the west of the study area (Brackley,1999; Townsend, 1993; Seward, 1976; Manning, 1988; and MacPherson, 1985). Balanced geological cross sections have been constructed and used as aids in structural interpretation. The Pohangina Faulted Monocline (Marden, 1984), a major regional structure, is controlled at depth by a shallow reverse fault. This underlying reverse fault is correlated to the Raukawa Fault of Rich (1959), which outcrops at the western end of the Manawatu Gorge. The Pohangina Faulted Monocline is tentatively correlated with another monoclinal flexure to the south of the Manawatu Gorge, also interpreted to be related to and controlled by the Ruakawa Fault (Rich, 1959). When the eastward dipping Ruakawa Fault is at greater depth, westward dipping normal faults are found and are interpreted as antithetic faults splaying off from the underlying thrust fault. The Pohangina Fault is mapped as an active normal fault, displacing an Ohakean terrace on the western side of the Pohangina River. The potentially active Whareroa Fault (Ower, 1943) is inferred to cross the Manawatu Saddle area trending SE – NW as a contact fault between Torlesse greywacke and Plio-Pleistocene sediments. The thrust faulting in the area has resulted in the intense deformation and uplift of Torlesse bedrock contemporaneous with drag-tilting and folding of the Plio-Pleistocene sediments. Erosion within the study area has exposed Takapari Formation beds dipping at up to 70° to the west. Steep dips are traced SW-NE across the landscape, interpreted as representing the axis of the Pohangina Faulted Monocline and also allowing links to be made between areas of exposed faulting mapped by Rich (1959), Ower (1943) and in this study. Lignite and tephra beds within the Takapari Formation are associated with deposition in an estuarine environment on a coastal plain bordering the Whanganui Basin, during Early Castlecliffian time. Geochemical analyses are used to identify eight tephras, which are used for both stratigraphic control and paleogeographic interpretation. During Early Nukumaruan time an influx of gravel within the south eastern Whanganui Basin is associated with the formation of a prograding Gilbert-type fan delta within the Cg Member of the Konewa Formation. The gravels are interpreted as being derived from exposed greywacke in the vicinity of the present day northern Ruahine Ranges, 40 to 70 km north of Pohangina. Distance from source is calculated from clast size within the conglomerate and together with mineralogy provide evidence of provenance. Biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic changes are used as evidence to support wider interpretations involving paleogeography and the geological history of the lower North Island. Depositional environments are interpreted using facies analysis, tephrochronology, grain size analysis, and biostratigraphy. Detailed stratigraphic logs are compiled and interpreted in terms of depositional history and sequence stratigraphy. Marker horizons and bio-events allow correlation of stratigraphy to the Whanganui Basin cyclostratigraphy and marine oxygen isotope record. This information is then used to build an overall regional geological history of the area, including understanding basin development, paleogeography, provenance and depositional history.
Some aranuian (postglacial) organic deposits in the south eastern Ruahine Range, North Island, New Zealand, investigated by palynological methods : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Geography at Massey University
(Massey University, 1981) Lees, Cynthia M
Palynological methods have been used to investigate Aranuian organic deposits in the south eastern Ruahine Range. The relevant literature was reviewed. Six profiles from five sites ranging in altitude from 80 to 1050 metres and from 13,300 years B.P. to present were sampled and the pollen analysed. Investigation of the palaeoecology of each site included the geomorphology, stratigraphy, present vegetation and pollen rain where relevant. The pollen data as percentages of several pollen sums was presented in pollen diagrams, statistically analysed and an interpretation suggested. An investigation of pollen rain in the Kahuterawa Valley in the Tararua Range and on Mount Ruapehu was made to obtain information on present podocarp-broadleaf forests and about Weinmannia racemosa in particular. The results indicated a succession of dominants, including W. racemosa over a period of up to 1000 years. This information was used in interpreting the pollen spectra of the fossil sites. All sites were reviewed as part of an Aranuian series. It was concluded that a climatic change from a drier cooler climate to a warmer moister one occurred between 13,300 ± and 10,650 (provisional date only). A more equable climate than at present possibly occurred between 3200 ± and 3770 ± with fewer frosts and droughts.These findings are in general agreement with those of palynologists at sites in other parts of New Zealand. Other aspects of climatic change erosional history, plant-land relationships and species representation have been discussed. The decline of W. racemosa at the West Tamaki site was part of a natural stage in the life cycle and not caused by the browsing of the opossum.

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