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Physico-chemical and Textural Properties of 3D Printed Plant-based and Hybrid Soft Meat Analogs
(Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature, 2023-06) Wang T; Kaur L; Beniwal AS; Furuhata Y; Aoyama H; Singh J
This study investigated the physico-chemical and textural properties of 3D-printed pea protein-only and pea protein-chicken-based hybrid meat analogs. Both pea protein isolate (PPI)-only and hybrid cooked meat analogs had a similar moisture content of approximately 70%, which was similar to that of chicken mince. However, the protein content increased significantly with the amount of chicken in the hybrid paste undergoing 3D printing and cooking. Significant differences were observed in the hardness values of the non-printed cooked pastes and the 3D printed cooked counterparts, suggesting that the 3D printing process reduces the hardness of the samples and is a suitable method to produce a soft meal, and has significant potential in elderly health care. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that adding chicken to the plant protein matrix led to better fiber formation. PPI itself was not able to form any fibers merely by 3D printing and cooking in boiling water. Protein-protein interactions were also studied through the protein solubility test, which indicated that hydrogen bonding was the major bonding that contributed to the structure formation in cooked printed meat analogs. In addition, disulfide bonding was correlated with improved fibrous structures, as observed through SEM.
Profiling the novel plant-based meat alternative category: Consumer affective and sensory response in the context of perceived similarity to meat
(Elsevier Ltd, 2024-07) Giezenaar C; Orr R; Godfrey AJR; Maggs R; Meika F; Hort J
Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) are increasingly popular and may contribute towards reduction of negative environmental impacts associated with the meat industry. Inferior sensory characteristics of PBMAs, compared to conventional meat products, remain a barrier for uptake of these products. This study aimed to profile a wide range of PBMAs for perceived similarity to meat, consumer liking, emotional response and sensory experience, and to determine consumer drivers of liking for this product category. Twenty-one PBMAs, spanning a broad range of product types (burger patties, sausages, meatball alternatives, chicken/beef pieces, bacon alternative, turkey roast alternative) and main protein ingredients (extruded plant proteins, tofu, or legumes/vegetables) representative of PBMAs available to Aotearoa New Zealand consumers, were tasted and evaluated by 140 Aotearoa New Zealand residents. Samples ranged widely in their perceived similarity to meat (median value range: 1.0–4.0 on a 5-point-scale) and overall liking ratings (mean ± SD, range: 35.1 ± 1.2––77.7 ± 17.4 on a 100-point hedonic scale). Overall liking ratings were driven mostly by liking for flavour, followed by texture, and less so by appearance. Sensorially, sample differentiation was mostly associated with variation in meat-related flavours and textures, or vegetable-related attributes. Notably meat flavour was the main driver of liking, and a very strong relationship (r = 0.92) was observed between perceived similarity to meat and overall sample liking ratings. Meat-like samples were also associated with positive emotional terms, whereas samples made from wholefoods were associated with negative emotional terms. Textural terms (‘gluey/slimy’, ‘pasty/doughy’) associated with wholefood products were also negative drivers for liking, and should be avoided in future PBMA products. In conclusion, the general population maintains a strong preference for PBMAs that are similar to meat, validating ongoing efforts to improve the meat-like properties of new and emerging products. PBMAs made from wholefoods require extensive product development to achieve consumer satisfaction across the category.
Synthesis and characterisation of Mānuka and rosemary oil-based nano-entities and their application in meat
(Elsevier Ltd, 2024-03-15) Kaur R; Gupta TB; Bronlund J; Singh J; Kaur L
Mānuka (MO) and rosemary oils (RO) -containing nanoemulsions and nanocapsules made of sodium alginate and whey protein, were designed and compared for their antioxidant effect. Mānuka oil-nanoemulsions and nanocapsules had smaller particle sizes (343 and 330 nm), less negative zeta potential (-12 mV and -10 mV), higher phenolic content, and antiradical characteristics than RO-nano-entities. However, nano-entities of both oils showed more thermostability and sustained release than free oils. Further, the antioxidant effect of essential oils and their nano-entities was compared against sodium nitrite (SN)-added and without antioxidants-added (controls) and Wagyu and crossbred beef pastes (14 days refrigerated storage). No significant difference among MO, RO and their nano-entities was noticed in crossbred pastes, while in Wagyu, nanoemulsions showed the lowest oxidation values than controls and SN-added pastes. Hence, nano-entities can be alternatives to chemical preservatives as natural antioxidants in meat preservation, along with improved thermal stability and release than free oils.
Growth, carcass and meat quality characteristics of Charolais-sired steers and heifers born to Angus-cross-dairy and Angus breeding cows
(Elsevier Ltd, 2023-07) Coleman LW; Schreurs NM; Kenyon PR; Morris ST; Hickson RE
Charolais-sired heifers and steers from Angus, Angus × Holstein-Friesian, Angus × Holstein-Friesian-Jersey and Angus × Jersey cows were measured for growth, carcass, and meat quality characteristics. Despite differences in weaning weight and growth rate, the progeny of different breed-crosses did not differ in final live weight or carcass weight (P > 0.05). Carcass and meat quality characteristics did not differ among breed-crosses (P > 0.05), except for fat that was more yellow in progeny from Angus and Angus-cross-Jersey dams. Steers were slaughtered older and had heavier carcasses with greater fat depth and intramuscular fat than heifers. Meat quality differed between the sex classes, with steers having greater pH and shear force, redder meat, and yellower fat than heifers. Angus-cross-dairy cows when crossed with a beef breed sire such as the Charolais will provide progeny for meat production which are competitive to beef breeds for beef finishing and meat production and therefore, a useful mechanism to utilize surplus animals from the dairy industry.
Review: Factors affecting sheep carcass and meat quality attributes.
(Elsevier B.V., 2022-02) Prache S; Schreurs N; Guillier L
Sheep meat comes from a wide variety of farming systems utilising outdoor extensive to indoor intensive with animals of various ages at slaughter. In Europe, slaughter may occur from 4 weeks of age in suckling light lambs to adult ages. More than any other animal species used for meat production, there are strong country-specific preferences for sheep meat quality linked to production system characteristics such as dairy or grassland-based systems. This article critically reviews the current state of knowledge on factors affecting sheep carcass and meat quality. Quality has been broken down into six core attributes: commercial, organoleptic, nutritional, technological, safety and image, the latter covering aspects of ethics, culture and environment associated with the way the meat is produced and its origin, which are particularly valued in the many quality labels in Europe. The quality of meat is built but can also deteriorate along the continuum from the conception of the animal to the consumer. Our review pinpoints critical periods, such as the gestation and the preslaughter and slaughter periods, and key factors, such as the animal diet, via its direct effect on the fatty acid profile, the antioxidant and volatile content, and indirect effects mediated via the age of the animal. It also pinpoints methodological difficulties in predicting organoleptic attributes, particularly odour and flavour. Potential antagonisms between different dimensions of quality are highlighted. For example, pasture-feeding has positive effects on the image and nutritional attributes (through its effect on the fatty acid profile of meat lipids), but it increases the risk of off-odours and off-flavours for sensitive consumersand the variability in meat quality linked to variability of animal age at slaughter. The orientation towards more agro-ecological, low-input farming systems may therefore present benefits for the image and nutritional properties of the meat, but also risks for the commercial (insufficient carcass fatness, feed deficiencies at key periods of the production cycle, irregularity in supply), organoleptic (stronger flavour and darker colour of the meat) and variability of sheep carcass and meat quality. Furthermore, the genetic selection for lean meat yield has been effective in producing carcasses that yield more meat, but at a penalty to the intramuscular fat content and eating quality of the meat, and making it more difficult to finish lambs on grass. Various tools to assess and predict quality are in development to better consider the various dimensions of quality in consumer information, payment to farmers and genetic selection.
Less Animal-Based Food, Better Weight Status: Associations of the Restriction of Animal-Based Product Intake with Body-Mass-Index, Depressive Symptoms and Personality in the General Population
(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2020-05) Medawar E; Enzenbach C; Roehr S; Villringer A; Riedel-Heller SG; Witte AV
Restricting animal-based products from diet may exert beneficial effects on weight status; however, less is known about such a diet and emotional health. Moreover, personality traits, for example high neuroticism, may contribute to restrictive eating habits and potentially confound diet-health associations. We aim to systematically assess if restrictive dietary intake of animal-based products relates to lower weight and higher depressive symptoms, and if differences in personality traits play a significant role. Cross-sectional data from the baseline LIFE-Adult study were collected from 2011–2014 in Leipzig, Germany (n = 8943). Main outcomes of interest were dietary frequency of animal-derived products in the last year measured using a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), body-mass-index (BMI) (kg/m2), and the Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Personality traits were assessed in a subsample of n = 7906 using the Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Higher restriction of animal-based product intake was associated with a lower BMI, but not with depression scores. Personality, i.e., lower extraversion, was related to higher frequency of animal product intake. Moreover, personality traits were significantly associated with depressive symptoms, i.e., higher neuroticism, lower extraversion, lower agreeableness, lower conscientiousness, and with higher BMI. These findings encourage future longitudinal studies to test the efficacy of restricting animal-based products as a preventive and therapeutic strategy for overweight and obesity.
Spread of Nontyphoidal Salmonella in the Beef Supply Chain in Northern Tanzania: Sensitivity in a Probabilistic Model Integrating Microbiological Data and Data from Stakeholder Interviews
(Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society for Risk Analysis, 2022-05) Zadoks RN; Barker GC; Benschop J; Allan KJ; Chaters G; Cleaveland S; Crump JA; Davis MA; Mmbaga BT; Prinsen G; Thomas KM; Waldman L; French NP
East Africa is a hotspot for foodborne diseases, including infection by nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS), a zoonotic pathogen that may originate from livestock. Urbanization and increased demand for animal protein drive intensification of livestock production and food processing, creating risks and opportunities for food safety. We built a probabilistic mathematical model, informed by prior beliefs and dedicated stakeholder interviews and microbiological research, to describe sources and prevalence of NTS along the beef supply chain in Moshi, Tanzania. The supply chain was conceptualized using a bow tie model, with terminal livestock markets as pinch point, and a forked pathway postmarket to compare traditional and emerging supply chains. NTS was detected in 36 (7.7%) of 467 samples throughout the supply chain. After combining prior belief and observational data, marginal estimates of true NTS prevalence were 4% in feces of cattle entering the beef supply and 20% in raw meat at butcheries. Based on our model and sensitivity analyses, true NTS prevalence was not significantly different between supply chains. Environmental contamination, associated with butchers and vendors, was estimated to be the most likely source of NTS in meat for human consumption. The model provides a framework for assessing the origin and propagation of NTS along meat supply chains. It can be used to inform decision making when economic factors cause changes in beef production and consumption, such as where to target interventions to reduce risks to consumers. Through sensitivity and value of information analyses, the model also helps to prioritize investment in additional research.
Alternative proteins vs animal proteins: The influence of structure and processing on their gastro-small intestinal digestion
(Elsevier Ltd, 2022-04) Kaur L; Mao B; Beniwal AS; Abhilasha; Kaur R; Chian FM; Singh J
Background: Digestibility, an indicator of protein bioavailability, is essentially a measure of the susceptibility of a protein towards proteolysis. Proteins with higher digestibility have been linked with better health outcomes. Animal proteins are generally considered to be of better nutritional value than plant proteins not only because they are a good source of essential amino acids but also due to their higher digestibility in the human gastro-intestinal tract. With the recent emergence of alternative food protein sources, which are now processed in a completely new way to design new foods or new versions of the conventional foods, it has become extremely important to understand their digestion characteristics. Scope and approach: This review discusses the factors that affect protein digestibility, including protein source, structure, type of processing, and modification, with a particular focus on the effects of non-protein components present in food matrix. Key findings and conclusions: To obtain the desired functionality, particularly for alternate proteins, numerous physical, chemical, and enzymatic methods for modification have been reported. These modifications may alter structural characteristics of proteins by inducing structural modifications such as protein unfolding, crosslinking, and aggregation. Depending upon the protein reactivity during processing, the susceptibility of proteins towards hydrolysis by digestive enzymes might change, affecting not only the overall protein digestibility but also the rates of release of polypeptides and amino acids. The faster rates of protein digestion have been linked with muscle anabolism, suggesting the need and importance of classifying the new, emerging and alternative protein sources according to their rates of digestion into rapidly (RDP), slowly digestible (SDP) and resistant (RP) proteins. More research needs to be focussed on converting, through processing, the undigestible or RP into RDP or SDP to achieve better health outcomes.
Multitarget preservation technologies for chemical-free sustainable meat processing
(Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Institute of Food Technologists, 2022-10-19) Kaur R; Kaur L; Gupta TB; Singh J; Bronlund J
Due to the growing consumer demand for safe and naturally processed meats, the meat industry is seeking novel methods to produce safe-to-consume meat products without affecting their sensory appeal. The green technologies can maintain the sensory and nutritive characteristics and ensure the microbial safety of processed meats and, therefore, can help to reduce the use of chemical preservatives in meat products. The use of chemical additives, especially nitrites in processed meat products, has become controversial because they may form carcinogenic N-nitrosamines, a few of which are suspected as cancer precursors. Thus, the objective of reducing or eliminating nitrite is of great interest to meat researchers and industries. This review, for the first time, discusses the influence of processing technologies such as microwave, irradiation, high-pressure thermal processing (HPTP) and multitarget preservation technology on the quality characteristics of processed meats, with a focus on their sensory quality. These emerging technologies can help in the alleviation of ingoing nitrite or formed nitrosamine contents in meat products. The multitarget preservation technology is an innovative way to enhance the shelf life of meat products through the combined use of different technologies/natural additives. The challenges and opportunities associated with the use of these technologies for processing meat are also reviewed.
Characterization of mānuka and rosemary oils as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents for meat applications : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2023) Kaur, Ramandeep
The usage of chemical preservatives in meat products has been associated with adverse health effects, which is driving consumers' preferences towards natural preservatives. Raw and processed meats have been linked to cancers due to the presence of nitrate/nitrite as a chemical preservative. In recent years, extensive innovative and promising approaches have been exploited to entirely or partially replace synthetic preservatives. Plant-based natural preservatives possessing antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics can be ideal for food applications. Essential oils are aromatic liquids extracted from different plant parts, such as leaves, bark, roots, and seeds, and are rich sources of bioactive compounds like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated sesquiterpenes and phenolic compounds. As per the literature, essential oils possessing antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics have been reported to decline the rate of oxidative reactions and microbial growth. This study aims to harness the potential of essential oil obtained from the indigenous plant of New Zealand, i.e., mānuka, as a natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agent for meat preservation than chemical preservatives like nitrates/nitrites. As per the available literature, β-triketones are responsible for the antimicrobial characteristics of mānuka oil. We hypothesise that using antioxidants and antimicrobial bioactive compounds of Leptospermum scoparium (mānuka) will improve the shelf life and stability of the meat products. The first research objective characterised and compared the antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of mānuka oil with different triketone contents (5, 25, and 40 %) and kānuka oil with a commonly used natural preservative, i.e., rosemary oil. In chemical composition, kānuka oil possessed higher levels of α-pinene, while rosemary oil exhibited higher amounts of 1,8 cineole and α-pinene as primary compounds. In mānuka oils, the concentration of other compounds decreased as triketone content increased from 5 to 40 %. A comparison of the antioxidant characteristics of these oils was also made with chemical antioxidants, i.e., butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). It was observed that mānuka oils possess higher antioxidant properties than rosemary and BHT (at both the lowest tested concentrations of 0.1 % and 1 %). In the antimicrobial efficacies assay results, all mānuka oils showed more effectiveness against Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus than Salmonella and Escherichia coli. However, the inhibition effect of rosemary oil was greater against Salmonella and Escherichia coli than mānuka oil (Chapter 3). The minimum inhibitory concentration of all mānuka oils required to inhibit Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus was below 0.04 %, while kānuka and rosemary oil inhibited these microbes at 0.63 and 2.5 %, respectively. On the other hand, a minimum 2.5 % concentration of all oils was needed to inhibit Salmonella and Escherichia coli. These results indicated that mānuka oil can be used as an antimicrobial agent, particularly against tested Gram-positive microbes (at a very concentration of 0.04 %) in meat products, while rosemary oil can be used against all tested microbes at 2.5 %. However, meat constituents such as fats have a significant effect on the efficacies of added bioactive compounds, therefore, it is essential to have insights into the lipophilicity of added essential oils and their bioactive compounds. In the next research experiment, to confirm the lipophilic behaviour of chemical compounds present in mānuka oil, the octanol-water partition coefficient of beta-triketones (leptospermone, isoleptospermone, and flavesone), α-pinene and γ-terpinene were elucidated using shake flask method (Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry) and predicted using EPI software (Chapter 4). High values of the octanol-water partition coefficient of these compounds indicate their more affinity towards the fat than the water. Further, when the concentration of the compounds separated in 3 and 12 % beef-fat and water systems was determined, all compounds showed higher concentrations in water of the low-fat system than in the high-fat. The findings pointed out that essential oils may exert an antioxidant effect in the high-fat system to prevent lipid oxidation; however, their antimicrobial effect may be reduced due to the presence of fat, and higher concentrations of these oils may be needed to achieve an antimicrobial effect against selected microbes. In the third research experiment, selected mānuka and rosemary oils were used as natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents in low and high-fat meat pastes prepared from commercial-breed and wagyu beef tenderloins, respectively (Chapter 5). These effects were compared against the chemical preservative sodium nitrate and butylated hydroxytoluene during refrigerated storage of meat pastes at 4 °C. In commercial and wagyu beef pastes, a lower number of Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus were observed in mānuka and rosemary oil treatments than in the sodium nitrate and control samples (without added preservative). Rosemary oil also delayed the growth of Salmonella and Escherichia coli more than mānuka oil added and control samples. In terms of oxidative stability, mānuka oil added wagyu beef pastes were more stable and showed the lowest lipid oxidation values than all treatments. In commercial beef samples, no significant difference between essential oils added samples, either mānuka or rosemary oil and control samples was observed. There was a significant change in pH values of all wagyu and commercial beef samples, whilst these changes were greater in untreated samples (controls) than in the essential oils-treated samples. Despite the promising antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics of essential oils, these are rarely utilised in food products owing to their easy degradation, low water solubility, low stability, and unwanted odour and flavour. The application of essential oils in encapsulated form is an effective and innovative approach to overcome these limitations by covering the core materials (oil droplets) in carrier materials. In addition, it improves stability and provides controlled release and targeted delivery of essential oils in foods. In the next research objective, mānuka and rosemary oils-containing nonentities (nanoemulsions and nanocapsules) made of sodium alginate and whey protein were fabricated and compared for their thermal stability and release characteristics (Chapter 6). The particle size and zeta potential of prepared nanoentities were between 100 -600 nm and -10 to -40 mV, confirming that the obtained nanoemulsions and nanocapsules were stable and in the nano range. The obtained nanoentities were observed to be more thermostable, sustained release profile than the free form of oils while showing a lower in vitro antioxidant effect. The release mechanism of the essential oil from nanoemulsions and nanocapsules was also studied using different mathematical models. The release mechanism of essential oil from nanoemulsions and nanocapsules followed Higuchi’s law, which indicates that the solvent first penetrates the encapsulated matrix and then dissolves the embedded oil droplets through the diffusion process. The delayed or sustained release from encapsulated oil might influence the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of essential oils in meat pastes. However, a food matrix made up of different constituents can affect the partitioning and release of essential oils from the carrier material, and consequently, their preservative effect may vary according to the meat paste. An improvement in the antioxidant activity of oils after emulsification was observed as nanoemulsions of both oils had the lowest TABRS values in crossbred and wagyu pastes (Chapter 7). Mānuka oil and its nanoentities had more antioxidant effects than rosemary oil. In wagyu pastes, there was a significant difference in nanoemulsions added pastes than the other treatments, while in crossbred pastes, no significant differences were noted between free oils and nanoentities containing beef pastes. Despite the antioxidant efficacies, the antimicrobial activity of free, nanoemuslfisied and nanoencapsulated oils was also determined in the wagyu and crossbred beef pastes during refrigerated storage (4 °C) of two weeks. These antimicrobial effects were compared against controls (without added preservatives) and sodium nitrite-added paste samples. There was a significant increase in microbial counts of all inoculated-paste samples, whilst this increase was lower in preservatives added samples than in the controls. In wagyu and crossbred beef pastes, mānuka oil and its nanoentities delayed the growth of Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus, and mānuka-nanoemulsions exhibited the lowest number of these microbes than all other treatments. However, rosemary oil and its nanoforms effectively inhibited Salmonella and Escherichia coli during refrigerated storage at 4 °C. To better understand the mechanism for the antimicrobial activity of essential oils against selected pathogens, cell viability membrane integrity and the release of intracellular compounds and proteins through fluorescence-based assays were determined. In all these assay results, mānuka and rosemary oils treatment of Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella and Escherichia coli exhibited a decline in cell viability, disrupted cell-wall permeability and enhanced release of intracellular compounds and proteins from cells than the untreated cells. Scanning electron micrographs also confirmed that these mechanisms were responsible for the antibacterial efficacy of mānuka and rosemary oil. To correlate the effect of fat content on varied antimicrobial characteristics of essential oils in meat pastes, the partitioning of essential oils in different phases, such as octanol, beef and water, was determined. Overall, the work showed that mānuka oil has the potential to be used in meat pastes as an antimicrobial agent, especially against tested Gram-positive (Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus). In addition, this oil can be used to completely replace synthetic antioxidants like butylated hydroxytoluene to inhibit lipid oxidation in high-fat meat systems. Due to the lipophilic nature of oils, the fat content of meat systems significantly affects the partitioning of these oils in water and fat phases, which in turn affect their antimicrobial efficacies.

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