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    What effect does teaching a generic planning strategy have on student writing? : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Educational Psychology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Salisbury, Andrew Raymond
    Writing is viewed as applied metacognition. Metacognition is conceptualised as a conscious use of strategies to carry out a process. By using planning as a central metacognitive tool, the researcher has examined the link between the quality of student writing and the use of a generic planning strategy. Participants were 11-year-old students in mainstream classes at an intermediate school in New Zealand. Results indicate that there is a link. This link is discussed in terms of the cognitive construct of conditional knowledge. Conditional knowledge is defined as knowing why, when and where an action is necessary or useful. It is also explored as a social construct of roles and interactions between hypothetical selves. Recommendations are made for further exploration of generic planning instruction. Keywords: metacognition, writing, e-asTTle, planning, primary
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    Strategy instruction, metacognitive training and attribution retraining : a combined approach for remediating secondary students' reading comprehension difficulties : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1992) Horrex, Jan Erica
    Students who adequately decode but have difficulty comprehending what they read, often possess a limited range of comprehension strategies. Furthermore, they often lack the metacognitive knowledge to use these strategies effectively. These two factors limit the likelihood of students experiencing success on a range of academic activities. As a consequence these students often develop dysfunctional attributional beliefs which also negatively impact on future learning. In the present study, 39 students with comprehension difficulties participated in an intervention programme comparing the effects of strategy-plus-attribution training, strategy-only training, and no training conditions on reading comprehension. The results revealed no significant improvement in students' reading comprehension. However, there was a significant improvement in students' use of comprehension strategies. A number of reasons have been suggested, which could explain why the increased use of strategies did not translate into improvements in reading comprehension. In light of these suggestions, several recommendations have been made regarding the future development and implementation of reading comprehension intervention programmes.
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    Causal metacognitive-motivational models of reading comprehension in reading disabled and normal achieving readers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology
    (Massey University, 1996) Pereira-Laird, Joyce Anne
    Contemporary models of reading indicate that reading achievement and impairment are the products of the complex interaction of motivational, cognitive and metacognitive processes. Most previous research has relied on correlational studies to examine the links amongst these variables. Given the complex relationships of these variables, research designs which examine these constructs simultaneously and which establish causal relationships are needed. The dearth of interactive research with different populations is surprising considering that reliable and theoretically meaningful models that are generally invariant across subpopulations would contribute much towards theoretical parsimony and progress of educational research. In light of the above considerations, the present study was designed with the primary goal of replicating and extending a previous test of a structural model of reading achievement. The main goal was to explain and predict both reading achievement and impairment from the complex and multicomponential perspective of a model of metacognition. Specifically, this involved an examination of the causal influences of young adolescent students' attributional style, and self-efficacy on metacognitive knowledge and their use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies. In addition, these same variables were examined to see how they related to their reading comprehension performance and how the relationships differed in normal achieving (NA) and reading disabled children (RD). A secondary goal of this study was the investigation of variables that would distinguish between RD and NA readers. There were three phases involved in the present study. Phase 1 concerned sample selection and involved administration of a short-form of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Revised. Selection of RD children was based on a six-stage multidefinitional approach. A sample of NA readers with reading achievement consistent with their age was also identified. A total of 203 NA readers and 204 RD readers were selected to participate in this study. The data were collected in Phases 2 and 3. Phase 2 involved administration of two self-report questionnaires which examined children's attributional style, use of strategies, metacognitive knowledge, and self-efficacy for reading. Phase 3 involved individually administered reading interviews. All questionnaires and reading interviews were administered within a two week period. The relationships among general intellectual ability, attributions, self-efficacy, metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive/cognitive strategy use, and reading comprehension in NA and RD children were evaluated using four models. The results were analyzed using structural equation modelling procedures. The proposed models provided a statistically adequate fit for the obtained data, accounting for about 60% of the variance in student performance. Several structural relationships were similar across groups suggesting that the metacognitive-motivational systems of NA and RD children were rather similar. For instance, the relationships between attributional style (as a single latent construct), efficacy, metacognitive knowledge, cognitive strategy use and metacognitive strategy use were similar across groups. Nearly all of the structural correlations and the direct and indirect coefficients were in the theoretically expected direction. In both groups, students' adaptive attributional beliefs significantly predicted self-efficacy and metacognitive knowledge. However, when the separate effects of attributional style were examined for each outcome, the results revealed that adaptive attributional style for failure was the only significant predictor of metacognitive knowledge. Furthermore, the attributional components varied in their impact on self-efficacy and these differential effects also varied across groups. An important contribution of this study was the incorporation of "strategy use" in the model. When combined strategy use (both metacognitive and cognitive) was included in the model, metacognitive knowledge no longer had a direct impact on reading performance (comprehension), instead combined strategy use played a significant role in mediating this relationship. Self-efficacy as well as metacognitive knowledge predicted combined strategy use which in turn predicted reading comprehension. Closer examination of the components of combined strategy use revealed that only "metacognitive strategy use" directly predicted reading comprehension across groups. The mediating role played by cognitive strategy use in the relationship between metacognitive knowledge and comprehension performance differed across groups. Self-efficacy directly and positively predicted metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive/cognitive strategy use. The results suggested that attributional style plays a pivotal role in the metacognitive development of both NA and RD children. A number of causal paths distinguished good from poor readers. They were the paths between ability and success/failure attributions, ability and performance, success/failure attributions and efficacy, cognitive strategy use and performance, and efficacy and performance. On the whole, motivational variables were more important in determining comprehension for RD children whilst metacognitive and cognitive strategy use variables were more important for achieving readers. The failure to develop an enriched metacognitive system in RD children was ascribed partially to the effects of their self-defeating attributions. Attributional beliefs, self-efficacy, metacognitive knowledge, and cognitive strategy use uniquely discriminated between NA and RD children. These findings suggest that metacognitive and motivational variables combine effectively to distinguish between RD and NA readers. The results also provide support for the utility of adopting a multidefinitional approach in defining RD children. The findings from this study advance the argument that reading achievement and impairment should be studied using a multicomponential framework. The implications of this study's research findings for classroom practice and research methodology are reviewed. Limitations of the present study were also discussed.
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    Metacognition, reading and causal attributions : a comparison of learning disabled and non learning disabled intermediate school children : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1986) van Kraayenoord, Christina Elizabeth
    Metacognitive knowledge, oral reading behaviour, comprehension monitoring, self perceptions of reading ability, and reading-related causal attributions in learning disabled (LD) and non learning disabled (NLD) children were investigated in this study. Sixty-nine Form Two pupils attending five intermediate schools in Palmerston North and Feilding were involved. The LD children were of average or above average intelligence, but underachieving in reading. The LD sample was operationally defined in terms of having a WISC-R IQ of 90 or above, with a PAT Reading Comprehension score equal to or less than the 16th percentile, or with a PAT Reading Comprehension score equal to or less than the 19th percentile and a PAT Reading Vocabulary score equal to or less than the 16th percentile. The LD sample (N=35) comprised 26 boys and 9 girls. The sample of NLD children was selected from pupils who had a WISC-R IQ score of 90 or above, with PAT Reading Comprehension and Reading Vocabulary scores greater than the 50th percentile and a Listening Comprehension score greater than the 30th percentile. As far as possible, the NLD group was matched to the LD group in terms of IQ. The NLD sample (N=34) comprised 19 boys and 15 girls. Data on metacognitive knowledge of strategies was obtained by administering the Reading Strategies for Meaning Scale and the Reading Strategies for Decoding Scale. Oral reading and comprehension monitoring behaviours were collected on passages which reflected the children's individual "easy" and "difficult" level. Comprehension monitoring was investigated by focusing particular attention on self correction behaviour and by the use of the Monitoring Device (Bleep) which permitted the investigation of on-line monitoring at the word level. At the conclusion of the oral reading self report data on awareness of monitoring and corrective strategy use were collected. This was referred to as the Self Report of Oral Reading Behaviour. In addition, three different instruments were developed in order to examine children's perceptions of their reading achievement and causal beliefs for success and failure in reading. The measures were the Causal Attribution Rating Scales, Reading Perception and Attribution Questionnaire, and Task-linked Perceptions and Causal Attributions. The study was conducted in two Phases. During Phase A the children's easy and difficult passage for oral reading was established and data on the children's reading-related perceptions and causal attributions were collected. Phase B consisted of administering the individual easy and difficult oral reading passages and the Monitoring Device (Bleep), collecting the Self Report of Oral Reading Behaviour data and administering the reading strategy scales. The picture of LD readers that has emerged is one not dissimilar to that of NLD readers. LD readers were shown to have similar metacognitive knowledge of positive strategies for gaining meaning from a story and decoding an unknown word compared with NLD readers. The evidence that LD readers have metacognitive knowledge was further supported by the results of the Self Report of Oral Reading Behaviour. In terms of describing monitoring and corrective strategy use, the reasons for such monitoring and for the selection of specific strategies and judgements about success and lack of success of fix-up activities, the LD readers revealed metacognitive competence. Therefore awareness of self-regulation was manifested by LD readers when specific self-generated reading events at two difficulty levels were examined. The reading behaviour and comprehension monitoring of the LD readers were also often similar to that of the NLD readers. Where differences did occur they frequently reflected performance on the difficult passage level. However, the reading behaviour of LD children also tended to be very erratic and highly individual in nature. In terms of self correction, as an index of comprehension monitoring, the LD readers were as proficient as their peers, indicating awareness of comprehension failure and an ability to implement corrective strategies. However, when analyses were undertaken combining the variables of self correction and linguistic cue use and meaning cue use, no clear pattern of behaviour appeared. The LD readers were also aware of comprehension breakdown as indicated by use of the Monitoring Device. Errors were signaled as frequently by LD readers as by NLD readers. On the easy passage, LD readers signaled self corrections as often as the NLD readers, but less often on the difficult passage. Again then, LD readers may be portrayed as competent metacomprehenders. However, when analyses involved signaled monitoring and linguistic cue use and meaning cue use inconsistent patterns emerged across difficulty levels and for correction type. Attributions for reading success to external factors and for reading failure to internal factors, coupled with low perceptions of in-class reading achievement were made by LD readers. These reflect a lack of self confidence and may lead to decreased persistence in effort, expectations of future failure and avoidance of tasks where difficulty has been previously experienced. Attributions for other children's reading success and failure and personal reading success and failure collected in an open-ended manner revealed no significant group differences. Similarly, attributions for comprehension and oral reading revealed no group differences. Task difficulty also did not differentiate the attributions made for the Task-linked Perceptions and Causal Attributions by the two groups. Roth groups perceived their understanding and oral reading on the easy passage as good or average, and as poor at the difficult level. Poor perceptions at the difficult level led to ascriptions of lack of ability by both groups. Several educational implications arising from this study were discussed. These relate to both assessment and instruction of LD children. In addition, a number of suggestions for future research were made. Most of these suggestions related to refinement in methodology, however, additional reading-related variables were also considered for future examination. Finally, while many similarities exist between LD and NLD readers in terms of metacognition, reading and causal attributions, this study has also revealed LD children need assistance with particular aspects of their reading and help in building a more positive self image. Meaningful learning opportunities where these concerns can become the focus of attention can only be achieved through suitable remedial intervention.
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    Strategy instruction and teacher professional development to aid the reading comprehension of year 4 students : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2006) Vosslamber, Andrea
    The ability to understand what one reads is fundamental to much school learning and is part of the school curriculum. The processes used by expert readers to comprehend text can be analysed and used as a basis for comprehension instruction. Such expert readers use particular mental strategies such as rereading, paraphrasing, and predicting, and adapt these to assist them in understanding various texts. This study investigated whether the implementation of reading comprehension strategy instruction to classes of Year 4 students would result in significant gains in metacognitive abilities, standardised reading comprehension, and reading self-efficacy. The quasi-experiment involved a treatment group of 48 students in two classes who were taught by one teacher, a treatment control group of 61 students in three classes taught by three teachers, and a non-treatment control group of 41 students taught in three composite Year 3 and Year 4 classes taught by three teachers. In total, 150 Year 4 students from eight classrooms in three suburban primary schools were involved in the study. Results from 2 x 3 analyses of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures revealed differences between the treatment group and control groups in several aspects of reading comprehension ability. The treatment group performed significantly better than either control group on the Jacobs and Paris (1987) measure of metacognitive awareness of strategies (Index of Reading Awareness). Treatment group students were also more confident about their ability to perform tasks related to reading comprehension than one of the control groups. Though they also made greater gains in confidence than the other control group, these gains were not statistically significant. Gains in reading comprehension as measured by a standardised reading comprehension measure (Progressive Achievement Test of Reading Comprehension) were marginal in comparison to one of the control groups, and not significant in comparison to the other. Secondly, this study also investigated whether intensive teacher training would result in successful implementation of reading comprehension strategies. Teachers need to know how to model their own mental processes for students so that students can see the strategies being applied. They then need to demonstrate for students when and how to adapt the strategies to various texts. In addition, teachers need to know whether to target instruction to only the struggling readers in their classrooms, or to students of varying abilities. A two-year professional development programme was developed and implemented to assist primary school teachers with the implementation of reading comprehension strategy instruction in their classrooms. During the first year a group of 14 teachers participated, and during the second year one teacher remained to implement the programme. This teacher, who taught at the Year 4 level, was provided with additional professional development in the explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies to her entire class of mixed ability students. Results from analysis of qualitative data indicated that the teacher had made significant progress in becoming competent in the teaching techniques needed for teaching reading comprehension strategies. These results suggested that the teacher moved from modelling process into content to being creative and inventive. By the end of the intervention, interviews conducted with the teacher and the students, as well as lesson observations and field notes, suggested that she had a good knowledge of the components of strategy instruction and was incorporating these in her classroom practice. Her students became increasingly aware of the teacher's central lesson aims regarding what she was teaching, why she was teaching it, and how it could be applied to the students' learning. The findings of the present study indicate that students of varying ability may improve their reading comprehension through instruction in reading comprehension strategies, though the marginal gains in standardised reading comprehension do not support this conclusively. Findings also indicate that a teacher can successfully be trained to implement reading comprehension strategy instruction in an entire class of mixed-ability students. Such findings have important implications for teacher and student education.