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    Development of a theoretical approach for investigating the occurrence of boredom in animals : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024-12-27) Heslop, Morgan Victoria
    Many domestic and captive wild animals across the globe are kept under highly constrained conditions, and there has been a growing concern that boredom might represent a major source of welfare compromise for these animals. To understand how significant an impact animal boredom represents, there is first a need to improve understanding of what boredom is and how it can be recognised. The aim of this thesis is to systematically examine the concept of boredom and how it can be recognised in animals kept under human management. This investigation begins by reviewing current knowledge of boredom in humans, culminating in the presentation of a framework that demonstrates the relationships between the environmental antecedents, cognitive and physiological correlates, social and cultural features and behavioural outcomes of self-reported boredom. In humans, boredom is a temporally fluid emotion that is thought to function as a goal-switching signal, occurring when there is a mismatch between the availability of cognitive resources and environmental demands on those resources. The specific cognitive and behavioural changes associated with boredom are expected to change over time, but the pattern of these changes is not yet well characterised in humans, making it challenging to determine when to look for expected responses in animals. The framework is then used to identify which aspects of boredom are measurable and manipulable to systematically investigate boredom in animals. While various correlates are theoretically measurable, the most promising measures of boredom are behavioural; three behavioural strategies are expected to occur in response to boredom, characterised as goal-switching, goal-perseverance, and non-goal-related behaviour. Manipulations to increase the likelihood of boredom-related behavioural outcomes involve altering either the availability of the subject’s cognitive resources or the environmental demand, to produce a mismatch. A novel model is introduced to describe the predicted relationships between the expected behavioural pattern and the availability of cognitive resources relative to environmental demand, as well as perceived meaning of the current activity or task and the animal’s judgement of control during boredom. The model predicts that when there is a resource-demand mismatch, or when an activity/task is low in meaning, boredom will prompt behaviours that aim to either change goals or regulate cognitive resources and demand to support persevering towards the current goal. In situations where the subject does not judge adequate control to successfully alleviate boredom through these strategies, the model predicts the occurrence of non-goal-related behaviours. The model is used to investigate how existing research on environmental conditions and ‘enrichment’ (mainly through increased complexity) contributes to our understanding of boredom in animals. One important knowledge gap is understanding how a lack of change over time (i.e. monotony) is perceived as an antecedent to boredom in animals. The way monotony, so defined, may occur in the lives of animals is further explored. Although monotony is recognised as an antecedent of boredom in humans, it may not lead to boredom in all animals. The evolutionary background of a species is predicted to influence whether monotony is aversive to members of that species, and different types of monotony may be aversive to, or preferred by, different animals. Consideration of the key features of monotony led to the development of an experimental paradigm for investigating the behavioural outcomes of task-related monotony in rats, with a view to observing whether the predicted strategies associated with boredom occur during monotony in a species that is expected to find such conditions aversive. The planned experiment could only be completed with a single animal, and the data recorded could not be fully analysed within the timeframe of this PhD. Nonetheless, the paradigm provides a potential method for investigating how monotony is perceived by animals and identifying any associated welfare impacts. To date, there is a small amount of focussed evidence that animals in restrictive environments exhibit attempts to switch goals when opportunities are made available. However, most studies only report collapsed data such as the overall duration of different behaviours, precluding the recognition of behavioural patterns that indicate the occurrence of boredom according to the model developed here. Understanding these behaviours requires continuous monitoring to observe wider behavioural patterns over time. The model presented supports the systematic investigation of boredom in animals by generating predictions about the expected behavioural outcomes in situations with different features, which can be further examined and tested in future research. The exploration of boredom presented here contributes to a growing area of animal welfare science. The recognition and alleviation of boredom are both important and it is hoped that this work will contribute to a strong foundation that will support and provide rigour to future studies.
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    A new test of semantic association for use in awake craniotomy : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Chapman, Jo
    This project aimed to develop and validate a new test of non-verbal semantic association to replace the Pyramids and Palm Tree Test (PPTT) in mapping the Inferior Fronto-Occipital Fasciculus (IFOF) during awake craniotomy surgery. Research and clinical experience identified a range of problems with the PPTT, especially in its performance across cultures, and no other existing semantic test met all requirements for effective use in IFOF mapping. A new test was developed based on theoretical and clinical understandings of semantic association, using a novel item format. The final test metrics were an improvement upon the PPTT on all preselected measures of item quality. A total of 707 healthy adult participants were then recruited to complete the new test via an online survey. A final pool of 58 items were selected, all of which performed consistently as intended. Analyses of subgroup performance found there were no clinically significant gender, culture, age, or education effects on scores. These results again suggested the new test improved upon existing tests and achieved its initial design objectives. Validation then proceeded to clinical groups, but recruitment challenges meant too few participants were recruited to permit any analyses. While its validity could not be determined with this study’s data, the test and its general population norms will be available for further research and then clinical use if indicated.
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    Exploring the concept of learning agility : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Studies in Human Resource Management at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Miller, Simon
    Continuous learning and employee adaptation have become increasingly important within modern organisational environments categorised by volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity. In turn, this has resulted in a growing body of literature supporting a construct known as learning agility. This study sought to determine the underlying psychological variables that support individual learning agility. In doing so, cognitive ability, personality, and emotional intelligence assessments distributed by OPRA Psychology Group were administered to a random sample of Scenic Hotel Group employees to obtain quantifiable data. Alongside this, a validated learning agility questionnaire was administered to participants and their managers to obtain a measure of each employee’s learning agility. Participants’ learning agility scores were then correlated with their personality, cognitive ability, and emotional intelligence assessment results. Results of this study indicate that learning agility is significantly positively correlated with overall cognitive ability. Furthermore, learning agility shows a significantly positive relationship with personality factors associated with openness to experience, extraversion, and the neuroticism sub-trait, tense-driven. As an outcome, this has provided for a tentative model of learning agility comprising of: 1. Cognitive ability 2. Learning mindset and behaviour 3. Contribution to the social learning environment This research adds to the current body of literature available into a construct known as a key determinant of employee performance and potential (Eichinger & Lombardo, 2000; McCauley, 2001). Furthermore, it provides the foundations for the development of a derived measure of learning agility that can be determined using existing psychometric assessments.
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    "Where did I park my car?" : a mixed methods investigation on mild cognitive impairment diagnosis in New Zealand : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of a Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) McKinlay, Alison R
    Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is defined as an objective impairment in cognitive function which spares everyday functional ability. The syndrome is shrouded in controversy regarding definition, cut-off criteria, and clinical utility. Consequently, it is an uncertain label for the client being diagnosed by their healthcare practitioner. To date, minimal research in New Zealand has focused on MCI within specialist assessment services. Reasons for this paucity of literature will be discussed throughout this thesis. The current research aimed to identify how practitioners deliver and perceive cognitive impairment diagnosis, and examine how clients respond to receiving this diagnosis. Client experiences were framed within the common sense model (CSM). This theory originates from health psychology, where coping behaviour is said to be influenced by the cognitive representations that a person has about their condition. Although the framework is previously discussed in relation to chronic illness, international researchers have started to examine the utility of the model in explaining MCI diagnosis response. Given this context, the CSM framework guided the client-focused components of this thesis. In Study One, 57 practitioners who diagnose cognitive impairment completed a questionnaire on labels applied to MCI and beliefs about the value of diagnosis delivery. Responses were analysed using content analysis to gain an impression of professional practice. Cognitive disorder - not otherwise specified (CD-NOS), early dementia, and normal ageing were reported to additionally label the symptoms of MCI in clinical practice. In Study Two, client responses were examined in a small clinical sample (N = 9) diagnosed with MCI and CD-NOS. Participants were interviewed twice within six months of initial diagnosis. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to gain insight into how people cope and make sense of their diagnosis over time. Descriptive analyses were also undertaken with a subset of Study Two data to examine changes and differences in coping strategies over time. Findings suggest that participants may not see their diagnosis as an illness or significant health threat in the first six months following diagnosis. This prompts a question on the suitability of an illness model with reference to diagnosis response. Findings from this research add to the literature by highlighting practice associated with an evolving form of clinical diagnosis in NZ.
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    Locus of control, type A behaviours and coping style as predictors of police performance : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2006) Saunders, Iain
    The current study explores the relationship between individual differences, related to the human stress response, and performance of Police Recruits in training at the Royal New Zealand Police College (N = 114). Data was collected during training sessions on stress management in Policing using scales from the Pressure Management Indicator (PMI) for Type A behaviour, Locus of Control and the use of positive coping. These variables were regressed against three performance data sets. Performance on two of the three dependant variables were found to be significantly and positively related to the PMI measures of the independent variables. Hierarchical regression analyses were carried out with mental ability, gender and age controlled for and predictive relationships were found for each of the dependant performance variables also, the strongest relationship being for overall Wing performance, variation in which was 68% accounted for by the model. Entry of the three PMI scales as a block explained significant unique variance in each performance measure over and above the variance explained by GMA. Further research is suggested to further explore the utility of measures of hardiness and stress tolerance for Police selection.
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    Initial development of a neuropsychological screening measure for school children : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2003) Reimann, Andrea Susanna
    The present study developed a pilot neuropsychological screening measure, called the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status for Children (RBANS-C) which is designed to be used with children between five and ten years of age. This pilot measure was trialled on a sample of 30 New Zealand primary school children to evaluate its screening ability for children. It is based on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) which is used to screen adults for neurocognitive deficits. Like the RBANS, the RBANS-C is made up of a battery of subtests that assess five cognitive domains, including attention, immediate and delayed memory, visuospatial/constructional abilities and language. Some of the subtests of the RBANS-C were altered to be more suitable for children while others were left the same as in the RBANS. The results from the pilot tryout indicated that some subtests have adequate psychometric properties while others do not. This is most likely due to the small sample size and to a lack of some research controls as well as to inadequacies of some of the subtests. Nevertheless, the results suggest that the RBANS-C seems to identify children with cognitive difficulties, and to some extent isolate those difficulties. No significant sex differences but some considerable age variations were observed since the measure lacks any adjustments for age effects which further improvements of the RBANS-C should incorporate. Also, future research on the RBANS-C will need to develop an alternative form and make necessary modifications to make the RBANS-C an effective neuropsychological screening tool for school children.
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    The patient competency rating scale as a measure of everyday functioning before and after traumatic brain injury : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Murphy, Latesha J
    Impaired self awareness is a common outcome of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and is usually measured by comparing self and informant ratings of everyday functioning. The Patient Competency Rating Scale (PCRS; Prigatano et al. 1990), has often been used for this purpose. The present study compared the before and after PCRS ratings of 53 sets of TBI patients and their informants. These groups were also compared to 130 sets of self and informant ratings for a non-head injured control group. Comparison of self and informant ratings for before and after revealed that TBI subjects were very aware of their post injury difficulties. A comparison of the self ratings of TBI (before injury) and control subjects suggested that the TBI group performed better than the control group, which acknowledged some difficulty with controlling emotion. Informants generally rated TBI subjects (before injury) and control subjects as more competent than the subjects rated themselves. A comparison of informant and self ratings (after injury) demonstrated that subjects with severe head injuries underestimated their difficulties, whilst subjects in the mild and moderate groups tended to be aware of their difficulties or overestimated them. This finding suggests that degree of awareness is dependent on the severity of injury.
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    The in basket test as practical psychology : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1982) Smith, Michael Charles
    The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate the value of the in basket test as practical psychology. Practical psychology is defined as applied psychology that is used by practitioners. In the case of personnel selection the practitioners are those who select people for work; this includes a large number and a wide variety of people. For the in basket test to be regarded as practical psychology it was hypothesised that a single variable method of overall assessment of performance on the in basket test should be as good as a multivariate method; the in basket test should be reliable; the single variable approach should be a valid method of assessing performance on the test; and the validity of the in basket test should be demonstrated in an industrial setting. Four studies were conducted to test these hypotheses; a reliability study, a factor analytic study, an assessment of the validity of the in basket test using discriminant analysis, and a study of the test in a meat freezing works. It was concluded that the single variable method of overall assessment of performance on the in basket test was as good as the multivariate method. It was argued that there were inherent difficulties in establishing the reliability of the in basket test, but inter scorer reliability was demonstrated. It was shown that the single variable of overall assessment on the in basket test was valid. The study conducted in a meat freezing works showed that the in basket could be used validly in an industrial setting. As a result of the research and a review of other personnel selection methods and their relationship to practical psychology, it was concluded that work sample tests need to be promoted more psychologists as useful selection methods in industry.
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    Viewing time and choice reaction time : exploring its utility with child sex offenders in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2011) Silva, Sheila Ayala
    This study explores the utility of Viewing Time and Choice Reaction Time in the assessment of child sex offenders in New Zealand. The assessment of sexual interest remains a challenge for clinicians working with child sex offenders. Child sex offenders are less likely to disclose sexual interest towards children for fear of potential repercussions and these issues become evident when offenders attend treatment for their offending. The efficacy of treatment depends upon having reliable information on the individual‟s sexual interest. The Plethysmograph assessment has been the most widely used assessment of sexual arousal, but research into the use of alternative assessments that are less intrusive is needed. Participants in this study were 52 child sex offenders who were attending treatment at Te Piriti Special Treatment Unit. Participants were assessed on two occasions with the VT and CRT assessments while they were attending the preparatory stages of the programme. Results indicates that response times are not reliable over time and that these assessments cannot identify child sex offenders according to their level of sexual deviance as determined by the STABLE-2007, or the gender and age of the victims they offended against. The findings, possible explanations, and limitations for this study are discussed and recommendations are given for future research.
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    A narrative inquiry into primary caregivers' understanding of their child's psychological assessment : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Niemand, Jessica; Niemand, Jessica
    This study explores the ways in which primary caregivers experience the process of having their child psychologically assessed. The research uses a narrative methodology to explore the accounts of seven participants who have supported their child through a process of psychological assessment. Caregivers were interviewed and their interviews were transcribed and analysed by outlining the sequential order of events and the main themes of each of the participants’ narratives. Individual stories were then combined to present the overarching themes that emerged from the study. The main themes include the following: suspected “diagnosis” and own expertise, seeing “inside” the child, bittersweet labels, questions of guilt and blame, the “good parent”, the distant professionals, problems with communication, challenging the system, inadequate measures, over-assessed, caregiver as the defender and advocate and the helpful professional. This research contributes to the limited literature on client’s perspectives of psychological intervention and is intended to improve clinicians understanding of this area.