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Item Applying a landscape ecological approach and geodesign from a farmer-centric position to inform the creation of future multifunctional, sustainable agricultural landscapes : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Natural Resources Management at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Tran, Duy XuanIn the wake of environmental challenges, it is important to improve the environmental sustainability of farm systems and landscapes whilst ensuring profitability for the farmers that manage them. This PhD study draws on theories from landscape ecology and geodesign to plan and design multifunctional agricultural landscapes from a farmer-centric position with sustainability in mind. A hill country and steep-land farm in New Zealand is used as a case study. A conceptual framework is proposed to guide landscape planning. The framework applies an ecosystem-based management approach (i.e., ecosystem services approach) coupled with geodesign at the farm scale. A comprehensive spatially explicit assessment of landscape multifunctionality and associated ecosystem services at the farm scale is carried out to understand the spatial variation of ecosystem services provision and how land use and land management goals of the landowners reflect the value and quality of landscape multifunctionality. Afterwards, spatially detailed variations in the relationship between landscape structure and the provision of ecosystem services is quantified to understand how landscape structure can affect the provision of ecosystem services in the farmed landscape. Finally, collaboration with the case farmers and application of different tools and models are carried out to generate future land use and management scenarios for the case study farm, visualise changes, and assess the impacts of future land use on landscape multifunctionality and the provision of associated ecosystem services and economic outcomes. This helps to demonstrate how the proposed approach can be applied to plan and design multifunctional agricultural landscapes that offer improved sustainability in the NZ hill country farmed landscapes. The results from the case study suggest that the proposed approach provides an effective solution for sustainable farm system design and that it can make an important contribution to advancing environmental management in New Zealand, as well as in other countries which face similar issues.Item Sustainable agrifood value chain transformation in developing countries : Indonesia's cashew sector case : a thesis with publication presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agribusiness, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Hidayati, Dwi RatnaThe value chain approach has been extensively explored to assist the development of the agrifood sector in developing countries. Agrifood value chain players in developing countries are increasingly moving into higher-value markets in order to increase their profits. The value chain lens can monitor the dynamic of the chain arrangement through governance activities and assess the value-adding source activities. In the meantime, higher value markets have imposed a new value focus on sustainable standards throughout the chain, demanding a "sustainable value chain" practice. A sustainable value chain requires the players to obtain a balanced activity in the economic, social, and environmental aspect. Many studies have sparked investigation in the sustainable value chain, however, the ability of developing countries’ value chain to transform their practices remains a contentious issue. Three significant problems could seriously impede the transformation process. First, most agrifood value chain transformations in developing countries begin with an outdated, traditional value chain. Second, a large number of smallholders are the main players in developing countries, who are typically cut off from the majority of value chain operations in terms of governance and value addition. Third, players from developing countries primarily develop practices with economic priority for alleviating their poverty, which frequently endanger social and environmental aspects. This study examines how to enable the sustainable agrifood value chain transformation in developing countries. Despite the fact that numerous studies have found a wide range of useful indicators, the structure of the transformation mechanism is frequently ignored. Therefore, this study focuses on synthesising indicators and finding the most effective mechanism to deal with sustainable value chain transformation. It is found that a framework that integrates sustainability, governance, and value addition dimensions has provided a strong foundation for facilitating and anticipating the sustainable value chain transformation in developing countries. Sustainability aspects must be incorporated into governance activities, in order to lead into value addition activities required by higher value markets. The proposed framework was applied in the cashew sector of Indonesia, by employing a qualitative method followed by a quantitative method. The qualitative method was used as an initial assessment of the current value chain practices. In 2020, a total of 25 key interviews with value chain players and stakeholders in Madura Island of Indonesia were conducted. The assessment specifically focuses on the evaluation of maturity level of practises (based around traditional chain, managed chain, and best practice), using governance and the value addition dimension. The findings confirm that there was a disconnect in practices among value chain players. Smallholders followed the traditional value chain, whereas major wholesalers and exporters followed the managed value chain. It was then proposed that value chain transformation be tailored in step-by-step trajectories to align smallholder practices with other players. Before all value chain players can advance to the best procedure, the practices of smallholders must first be aligned to a managed chain level. Following up on the findings, the enabling factors for a sustainable value chain transformation were assessed in order to fully align with higher value market demands. Smallholders’ perspective was used as the focus of attention since they are the most vulnerable player operating in the value chain and prone to sustainability. In 2021, a quantitative method was used with 159 smallholders as respondents in the study area. The results showed that farm practice milieu and information-communication are the strongest factors to enable sustainable value chain practice. It was followed by stakeholder support, certification orientation and market expansion as moderate factors in order to amplify the process of practice transformation. Meanwhile, pre-harvesting value, value-capturing, and post-harvest value are the weak factors which tend to abate transformation. Given these factors, the final step of investigation is to examine the actors who are most compatible with higher value market demands. The heterogeneity of smallholders’ perspectives towards sustainable value chain practices was evaluated. Four clusters were discovered and prioritised as accelerators, progressors, inattentive, and conservative. Understanding the heterogeneity of smallholders allows for a more precise treatment, and prioritisation in intervention is required to accelerate alignment with higher value markets. Overall, this study stands out in advancing the enabling mechanism for a sustainable value chain transformation through a systematic and structured process. The study lays the groundwork for future sustainable value chain studies which focus on the mechanism of transformation, using a step-by-step procedure, prioritised factors, and actors. Practitioners could independently evaluate and tailor their most effective transformation approach. Furthermore, policymakers could set the intervention into a more targeted agenda.Item Individuals, organisations, and local context shaping small-scale agricultural initiatives addressing sustainability : two case studies in Hawke's Bay, Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture & Environment at Massey University, Manawatū, Aotearoa(Massey University, 2021) van Noppen, Florentine DominiqueExperts have recognised agricultural land-use is in need of transformative change to become sustainable while feeding the world population. In this thesis it is assumed based on changing regulation, literature, and media coverage there is an on-going agricultural sustainability transition in Aotearoa New Zealand. Scholars highlighted the potential of local initiatives to address sustainability issues in locally fitting ways. The role of initiatives collectively driving transformative change has been studied in sustainability transitions literature. However, how individual initiatives are being shaped at the level of individuals and initiatives has not been studied extensively. To inform people seeking to support agricultural initiatives navigating sustainability transitions, this thesis answers the research question: How are agricultural initiatives seeking to address local sustainability being shaped in the context of a sustainability transition? After a scoping phase to identify agricultural sustainability initiatives, two agricultural initiatives addressing local sustainability in which farmers and local government were involved, were selected and studied. Insights into how these initiatives were being shaped revealed forces associated with an ongoing transition were experienced at the individual level in both cases and shaped the initiatives through mechanisms including funding requirements and expertise. Local contexts being defined by strained historical relationships in the first case and challenged practices in the second shaped how boundary objects emerged in their functions. It also shaped the role of the intermediary that had a role to mediate relationships in the second case. Relationships with organisations in both initiatives were embodied by individuals and personal relationships shaped their roles in initiatives. Personal attributes of individuals were found to shape those roles as well as the involvement of farmers and the role of the intermediary. This thesis exposes a rich field of enquiry at the level of individuals and initiatives in sustainability transitions that can be further explored by conducting additional research into small scale initiatives navigating sustainability transitions in agricultural contexts as well as other fields. More insights into this micro-level of sustainability transitions may assist organisations in their efforts to support small scale initiatives navigating a sustainability transition.Item Use of life cycle assessment (LCA) to facilitate continuous improvement of on-farm environmental performance : a sheep dairy case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Studies in Management at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Mohan, RaynishaFarm management practices have in recent times seen a shift towards a greater focus on sustainable agriculture, concerning environmental impacts and food safety. In New Zealand, the sheep dairy industry has seen rapid growth in the past decade as an alternative dairy source. The importance of sustainability in this industry has been recognised with New Zealand government programmes such as the Primary Growth Partnership, designed to boost the exports of the emerging industry, with a focus on sustainable production. Utilising a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) based environmental certification scheme as a tool to support continuous improvement of on-farm environmental management can potentially support the emerging sheep dairy industry to define and communicate the sustainability of their farming practices. This research aims to inform the practice of environmental labelling with application to sheep dairy products and offer a way of validating the sustainability statements made by New Zealand sheep dairy producers in their marketing approaches. The two key objectives of the study were (1) to determine the environmental hotspots of New Zealand sheep dairy farming and what mitigation strategies can be developed, and (2) Develop key performance indicators (KPIs) for an LCA-based farm certification system focussed on sheep dairy in New Zealand. To address objective 1, an LCA study was conducted on a New Zealand sheep dairy case-study farm. Sensitivity analysis around the type of imported grain feed and pesticide used were also conducted. To address objective 2, a review was conducting on four existing environmental certification schemes. Following this, a prototype list of KPIs based on the LCA findings was then designed. The LCA study utilised a cradle-to-farmgate boundary and included the following activities: livestock emissions; the production and use of fertiliser, herbicides, and pesticides; production of imported supplementary feed; production and use of fuels and electricity; and lastly emissions from milking shed and effluent. The results showed that both the off-farm and on-farm stages contributed to environmental impacts and the production and use of fertilisers, application of pesticides, and enteric fermentation of livestock were found to be the biggest hotspot areas. A prototype environmental certification scheme comprising a Tier 1 KPI framework was then formulated, combining both the LCA results and previously consolidated indicators. Each KPI was categorised under the following themes: land management, nutrient, pesticide, water management, and lastly, energy and carbon management.Item Food for thought : increasing nutritional diversity by adapting to droughts in Timor-Leste's permaculture/agroecology garden schools : a research project presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Marra, PeterThe main aim of the research was to explore community resilience, and specifically whether and how garden schools that use permaculture/agroecology principles may be usefully contributing to adaptation to climate change and nutritional diversity in Timor-Leste. The research also aimed to investigate the challenge of implementing garden schools in Timor-Leste. Specifically, targets of the Sustainable Development Goals relating to water conservation, resilience and food security were utilized to measure the progress of garden schools. The above is embedded in a conceptual agroecology framework that assesses the resilience of food growing systems in relation to climate change as the schools utilize permaculture/agroecology principles, with permaculture being a form of agroecology. Timor-Leste is now faced with extreme climate patterns as a result of climate change that can lead to more prolonged droughts. This study used a qualitative methodolology, which included interviews of teachers with school gardens, to help understand how teachers and their students are adapting to these droughts. The study also examines nutritional diversity in schools and the benefits and challenges of implementing school gardens. Furthermore, the study explores the transfer of nutritional and gardening knowledge from schools to the community to increase community resilience. The research revealed that garden schools internationally improve students’ scientific understanding and agricultural knowledge and their taste for locally grown fruit and vegetables. The school gardens in Timor-Leste have multiple benefits with regard to improving educational outcomes and community resilience as a school garden transforms a schoolyard into a green laboratory for students to learn about nutrition, mathematics and linguistics.Item Adoption of cassava technology for sustainable livelihoods : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Rural Development at Massey University(Massey University, 2007) Azilah, Mary EsenamThe RTIP was part of efforts to improve the livelihood security of resource poor farmers in Ghana. The focus of the programme included the introduction of the new cassava varieties, that have the potential to improve yields and consequently to improve household income levels. However, the low level of sustained adoption of the technology has raised questions relating to the project. A single case study was used to investigate the factors that influenced farmers' reasons for adopting and continuing or discontinuing the use of the new cassava varieties. Semi-structured interviews were used in the data collection, which was conducted between May and June 2006. Farmers who had adopted or not adopted the cassava technology and key informants, including opinion leaders and agricultural extension agents, were interviewed. A qualitative data analysis procedure was used in the analysis of the information gathered. The findings of this study revealed many interrelated factors, which influenced the initial adoption of the cassava technology and the sustained use of the new cassava varieties. The factors, which were identified as influencing the initial adoption decision of farmers, were related to the cassava technology, whilst other external factors relating to the farmers and their circumstances, in addition to situational factors and extension contacts, were found to have influenced the sustained use of the new cassava varieties. The new cassava varieties have a proven potential to improve the livelihood security of the farmers, through income generation, provided they have access to credit, processing and reliable markets. Inadequate institutional support with resources, for extension agents, influenced the effectiveness of service delivery. The findings suggest that development interventions, intended to improve the living standards of farm households, need to consider the complex nature of the farmers' circumstances, in their planning and implementation of the projects, if the needs of the target group are to be met.Item Implementing sustainable agriculture : perceptions of hill-country farmers in the Rangitikei District : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Resource and Environmental Planning(Massey University, 1996) King, Grant FrederickThis thesis investigates the perceptions concerning the implementation of sustainable agriculture in hill-country farming in New Zealand, primarily by using a survey of farmers from the Rangitikei District. A literature review identified three main groupings of approaches to sustainable agriculture: a production or economic based approach; a stewardship and intergenerational equity approach; and a social approach which emphasised social equity and rural community issues. It also stressed the importance of scale issues in sustainable agriculture with the analysis focussing on horizontal, vertical and temporal scales. It appears that the 'ideals' of sustainable agriculture as outlined in the literature are not being translated into reality in New Zealand, and indeed the ideals of New Zealand farmers may not correspond to those presented in the literature. A conceptual framework was constructed to further investigate this issue of the gap between the ideal end-state of sustainable agriculture and the actual practices. A survey of 260 'conventional' farmers in the high-terraces and hill-country of the Rangitikei was selected to empirically test the conceptual framework. The viewpoints of these farmers were contrasted with those of: a small sample of certified organic farmers who ran similar land-uses on similar land-classes; and a sample of professional staff who were selected from the regional councils, central government, industry groups, a farmer organisation, a conservation organisation, scientists and academic staff. A 78 question survey ascertained farmers ideals with regard to sustainable agriculture, what they considered to be desirable sustainable farming practices; what they considered to be barriers to sustainable agriculture; and what implementation methods (eg. regulation, education, rates rebates) they considered to be acceptable. The actual farmers practices (eg. pesticide use, fertiliser use, agroforestry, erosion control) were also surveyed using a relative scale which measured change over the last five years. The key findings of the sample survey were as follows. The overall preference for the 'hands-off' implementation methods, such as 'education' and 'further research' by all three groups. There was a lack of recognition of social characteristics of sustainable agriculture by the professional staff, compared to their acknowledgement of economic and environmental considerations. The practices undertaken by farmers had improved over the timeframe measured, although much of the change was for economic reasons as opposed to environmental considerations. The most commonly identified barriers by all the respondents were economic in nature. The thesis concluded with a discussion of the policy implications of research findings. The most important policy implication discussed was whether the preferred methods for implementing sustainable agriculture (ie. 'education' and 'further research') could actually overcome the perceived barriers to achieving sustainable agriculture which were predominantly economic in nature. Some further suggestions were also made on further research directions; most notably that the factors identified in the conceptual framework need to be tested on a wider range of farm-types and other regions in New Zealand.Item Towards an operational definition of sustainability in New Zealand dairy farming : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Resource and Environmental Planning, Massey University(Massey University, 1993) Lerios, Leo ASustainability is increasingly viewed as a desirable goal of agricultural development and environmental management. The emergence of the sustainability concept has seen a concomitant rise in the interest of its measurement. It has been suggested that through the use of sustainability indicators, the attainment of the agricultural sustainability goal can be assessed. It is therefore the aim of this thesis to develop indicators based on the concept of agricultural sustainability. An environmental accounting model is used as the framework within which these indicators were developed and evaluated. The agricultural sustainability concept is first examined and defined, giving significance to its economic, ecological and social dimensions. It is emphasised that the attainment of sustainability involves the balance and trade-off amongst these dimensions, which can be demonstrated through the dynamic interactions of these dimensions. The thesis then focuses on the discussion of the methodological considerations, which are important in developing an operational framework for measuring agricultural sustainability. The ideal properties and characteristics of sustainability indicators are identified and critically examined. An evaluation of the different types of input-output models that could be used in conjunction with such indicators were discussed. Input-output models were seen to be critical in developing an operational framework, as they are capable of representing the interactions between the economic and ecological dimensions of sustainability. The second part of the thesis concentrates on the application of the methodology to measuring changes in sustainability of New Zealand dairy farming industry. After a brief historical survey of dairy farming, a number of sustainability indicators for the industry are identified. These indicators were then operationalised using a spreadsheet-based input-output model of the New Zealand dairy farming industry. The model consisted of an eight-sector dairy farming sub-model (based on MAF farm types), connected to a 25-sector input-output sub-model of the New Zealand economy. The model focused on selected resource inputs and pollutants. Indicators derived from the input-output model were developed to reflect the economic, ecological and social dimensions of the sustainability concept. These indicators then were evaluated by monitoring their behaviour in different scenarios for the future of New Zealand dairy farming, by using the environmental accounting method developed earlier. It is observed that the policy goal of sustainability in dairy farming generally can not be attained to the full satisfaction of all the economic, ecological and social indicators. Along the way, trade-offs and balances among these factors have to be made. It is up to the policy and decision makers to weigh the various alternatives, with the indicators providing adequate information upon which rational choices can be based. This thesis demonstrated the possibility of formulating sustainability indicators and using them as an evaluation tool in spite of the current state of available data and methodological constraints. It is recommended that a baseline of agricultural sustainability parameters should be established and associated relevant expertise be developed, if operational measurement of the agricultural sustainability goal is to be pursued.Item The governance of sustainable agriculture in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Politics at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2012) Beecroft, KateThe externalities associated with agriculture mean that a turn to sustainable farming practices by farmers is essential. However, those at the centre of such a turn have complex relationships to the structures of governance that regulate, order and control socio-economic life. Governance signals a shift to a wide range of governance mechanisms that are not anchored in the sovereign state and the mechanisms that regulate agriculture and the agrifood sector have changed significantly in recent years. This thesis [and briefly restate thesis question]. Drawing on two constructs from the theoretical and applied governance literature and the agrifood literature I examine farmer perceptions of hierarchy, the market and networks and the spatial locations of these new forms of governance in regard to biological farming practices. I conclude by arguing that there is a strong case for considering governance as the new way in which agriculture is regulated, controlled and influenced. At the forefront of this devolution of power away from central government is market-based regulation and control. The implications of such restructuring for the proliferation of sustainable agricultural practices means the strengthening of market instruments is needed to bolster sustainable farming. Furthermore, funding by central government is considered necessary by farmers in order to establish a strong case for the success of sustainable farming practices.Item Governing sustainable agriculture : a case study of the farming of highly erodible hill country in the Manawatu-Whanganui region of New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa, University of New Zealand, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2013) Reid, Janet IsabelThe sustainability of agriculture and what constitutes sustainable agriculture is the focus of ongoing challenge and debate in New Zealand. In particular, the sustainability of current farming practices are targeted for criticism and demands made for fundamental changes in farming. This research adds to the debate by providing insights into how an aspect of farming that has environmental implications is governed. The farming of highly erodible hill country (HEHC) in the Manawatu-Whanganui region is the single qualitative case studied and how the farming of HEHC is governed and the reasons why it is governed in this way are the research questions answered. Foucault‘s governmentality theory is the basis of the theoretical framework which is expanded to include the concept of farming knowledge-culture to recognise and capture farming as a form of government. Results are structured into a national, regional and farm level phase and are based on data drawn from semi structured interviews and documents. This research provides an example of the difficulties farmers face, in balancing the diverse and conflicting demands placed on them to farm sustainably. This research illustrates the complex contradictory and inconsistent demands brought to bear on farmers‘ management of HEHC through the governing by central government and the regional council of HEHC specifically, but of farming generally, also. Farmers are encouraged to be, both, competitively-productive and financially profitable, and socially responsible in managing the impact of farming on the environment. Accepted farming practices maintain and enhance, as well as constrain and compromise, the environmental sustainability of natural resources. The farming of HEHC in the Manawatu-Whanganui region is governed by an interwoven multi-scale of governing by central government, the regional council and farming. There is no coherent or deliberate governing of the farming of HEHC or sustainable agriculture. However, aspects of sustainable agriculture are governed across central government programmes but the sustainability outcomes are incidental to broader economic and trade outcomes sought by central government. The main agenda for agriculture advanced by central government is one of competitive productivism through the facilitation of market-led governing. The significant role that regional level government in New Zealand can, and do have in governing farmers use and impact on natural resources is revealed in this research. The regional council are advancing competitive productivism in farming moderated by sustainability objectives.