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    An investigation into the effect of seasonal root replacement upon plant longevity in perennial ryegrass (Lolium Perenne), Italian ryegrass (L. multiflorum), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and annual meadow grass (Poa annua) : a thesis presented at Massey Agricultural College in part fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the University of New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1955) Schwass, R. H.
    Any reader of the American news magazine, "Time", will know that the editors occasionally publish a "grass roots report" dealing with some current question of public interest. It takes the form of a survey of the fundamental issues involved, and attempts to assess their significance, in-so-far as those issues are known. It is a tacit recognition by a non-scientific body of opinion of the importance of the underground organs to the well-being of a plant, and that these organs are more essential, despite their hidden and inaccessible habitat, than is commonly recognized. [From Introduction]
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    Investigating Epichloë endophyte transmission in Poaceae hosts : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Plant Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Zhang, Wei
    Vertically-transmitted Epichloë endophytes are agriculturally important fungi that colonise the aerial plant tissues of cool-season grasses within the Poaceae. Plants colonised by selected strains of Epichloë have superior protection from herbivores, thus affirming the important role of these endophytes in New Zealand farming systems. However, the development and marketability of endophyte-based products is often hindered by failures of endophyte transmission. This research investigated: (1) the developmental timing of endophyte colonisation of the seed embryo; (2) the identity of soluble sugars related to endophyte aging during seed storage; (3) the comparative endophyte hyphal density in the shoot apex and florets of high- and low-transmission genotypes; and (4) the molecular mechanisms for endophyte transmission from the inflorescence primordia to the unfertilised ovary. Through a detailed investigation, utilising confocal microscopy to observe the distribution of Epichloë coenophiala strain AR601 in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), the endophyte hyphal colonisation in the ovary (pre-fertilisation) through to the fully mature seed stage was tracked. Confocal microscopy images revealed that endophytes have colonised the embryo sac before host grass fertilisation. Tall fescue seeds, either endophyte-free or infected with one of three endophyte strains (AR584, AR605 or common-toxic) were subjected to a 2x2 factorial combination of two factors (accelerated aging or not, and seeds imbibed or not) and the sugar profiles in the seeds were investigated. Trehalose was the sugar that correlated most closely with the loss of endophyte during seed aging. After imbibition, the concentrations of trehalose significantly declined in the endophyte-infected seed tissues, suggesting that the endophyte-oriented trehalose was utilised during imbibition. In addition, the sugar alcohols mannitol and ribitol were found in high concentrations in endophyte-infected embryo and endosperm tissues. These two sugars, therefore, could be potentially used as indexes to estimate endophyte biomass. Two experiments were performed to investigate the endophyte hyphal density in the vegetative and reproductive tissues of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne): namely quantification of the endophyte density in the shoot apex tissues using real-time PCR, and analysis of immunoblot colour intensities of laterally bisected florets from six endophyte-grass genotypes (high-transmission [HT]: genotypes 11, 103, 107; low-transmission [LT]: genotypes 13, 79 and 83) and from three positions (bottom, middle and top) of the spike. The florets were collected at three growth stages (Stage I [unfertilised], Stage II [ten days after Stage I] and Stage III [twenty days after Stage I]). Real-time PCR analysis showed that the HT genotypes generally had higher endophyte densities in the shoot apex tissues compared with the LT genotypes. The immunoblot analysis showed that the immunoblot intensities in genotypes 11, 103, 107 and 13 were significantly higher than the other genotypes at Stage I, while the immunoblot intensities in the three HT genotypes were significantly higher than the LT genotypes at Stage II. However, there were no significant differences in the intensities between any of the genotypes at Stage III. Microscopy confirmed that HT genotypes carried a higher density of endophyte hyphae in the shoot apex tissues and ovaries (Stage I) than the LT genotypes. The data indicated that increased endophyte biomass is one factor that enhances endophyte transmission from the parent plant to mature seeds in the HT genotypes. RNA-Seq was used to measure the transcriptional response in two types of tissues (inflorescence primordia and the ovary) in the HT and LT genotypes. This study showed that 102 genes were commonly or exclusively differentially-expressed between the HT and LT genotypes in the inflorescence primordia and/or the ovary. Functional enrichment analyses by agriGO showed that the highly enriched gene ontology (GO) terms between the HT and LT genotypes were involved in serine family amino acid metabolic processes (GO:0009069) and cytoplasmic membrane-bounded vesicle function (GO:0016023) in both the inflorescence primordia and the ovary. More differentially-expressed genes (DEGs) coding for trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase were induced during development from the inflorescence primordia to the ovary in the HT than the LT genotypes, demonstrating the higher demand for trehalose in the HT than the LT genotypes during endophyte transmission. More genes regulating salicylic acid were significantly repressed while more genes related to jasmonic acid metabolism were significantly induced during development from the inflorescence primordia to the ovary in the HT than the LT genotypes. It is proposed that the lower salicylic acid metabolism and higher jasmonic acid metabolism during development from the inflorescence primordia to the ovary in the HT genotypes might be related to increased endophyte transmission frequencies.
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    Seed factors involved in early seedling establishment of Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Plant Biology and Biotechnology at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1995) Murray, Patricia Alison
    New Zealand pastures are commonly based on vigorously growing Lolium (ryegrass) species. In many situations, however, it is often advantageous to combine the vigorous qualities of Lolium species with the versatility of other species such as Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue) to result in a pasture which is high in quality all year. F. arundinacea, however, has poor seedling vigour which places it at a competitive disadvantage when sown with Lolium. During seedling establishment, the seedling is dependent upon the food reserves present in the seed. The nature and amount of these reserves and the ability of the seed to mobilise them are therefore likely to have an affect on seedling perfonnance. While much knowledge exists about the processes involved in seed reserve mobilisation in some cereals, little information is available for pasture grasses. An in depth investigation of the behaviour of one seed lot of F. arundinacea was undertaken in order to gain a more detailed understanding of germination, reserve mobilisation and establishment processes in pasture grasses and how they relate to the processes of seedling growth. Comparisons between this species and Lolium multiflorum (Italian ryegrass) were undertaken throughout the study. Germination and seedling growth of the F. arundinacea seed lot was found to be heterogenous and slower than in L. multiflorum due to later radicle emergence. Mobilisation of reserves and the onset of α-amylase activity correlated well with the utilisation of reserves in L. multiflorum. In both prechilled and non prechilled F. arundinacea seeds, however, anomalies were identified in the process which indicated that reserve mobilisation was less tightly coupled to seedling growth in F. arundinacea. Reciprocal plot analyses indicated that the beneficial effects of prechilling in most seeds of the F. arundinacea seed lot were not related to residual dormancy but were a thermal time benefit. It appears prechilling was allowing rate limiting steps in embryo growth to be advanced before visible germination. Apart from this, no real differences were detected in the way the two species mobilised reserves. Differences in the appearance of α-amylase isoenzymes of F. arundinacea at different times during germination indicated that gene expression may be under some complex differential control mechanisms during germination and reserve mobilisation. Prechilling was not found to change the spectrum of isoenzymes, but merely to advance the time-course in which different isoenzymes appeared. There were also distinct differences in α-amylase isoenzyme patterns between F. arundinacea and L. multiflorum, and also wheat. Preliminary studies indicated that exogenous gibberellic acid was more effective in promoting α-amylase production in L. multiflorum than in F. arundinacea. However, α-amylase production in F. arundinacea was more susceptible to promotion by prechilling. This study has identified a wide range of variables impacting on germination and seedling establishment in F. arundinacea. This, together with the lack of previous detailed studies on grass seed germination and seedling growth and the lack of literature on F. arundinacea germination in particular, highlights the enormity of the task ahead of extending key areas of this study to different seed lots and species.
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    Extraction and structural study of hemicellulose B from tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Chemistry at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1971) Hensanghongs, Patana
    1.1 Hemicellulose The structural carbohydrates are mixtures of polysaccharides which together with lignin, constitute the cell wall. Usually they are divided into three fractions: pectic substances, hemicellulose and cellulose.1 Pectins, widely distributed in land plants are characterised by a main chain of 1 – 4 linked galacturonic acid units. They may also contain rhamnose, galactose, xylose, arabinose and fucose in varying amounts. These sugars form part the main chain in some pectins and branch chains in others.2 The pectic triad consists of galacturonan, araban and galactan. Pectic substances occur without exception in all higher plants. It is possible that pectic substances may serve as protective agents for natural rubber particles and may be important food reserve for the plant.3 They are found most abundantly in the primary cell walls and in the intercellular layer.4 [From Introduction]
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    Comparative response of tall fescue (Lolium arundinacea Schreb.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) swards to variation in defoliation interval and height : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriScience at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2015) Kaufononga, Salesi
    This thesis studies aspects of the epidemiology of Nematodirus spathiger and Nematodirus filicollis, both are common and potentially pathogenic parasites of lambs in New Zealand. Three studies were undertaken; the first a presence/absence survey to determine the distribution of the two species on farms, the second examined the prevalence of benzimidazole (BZ) resistance in the two species and the third experiment investigated the requirements for chilling for N. filicollis eggs to hatch. The first two studies utilised faecal samples from routine faecal egg counts and/or routine faecal egg count reduction testing on farms. To identify the Nematodirus species involved, eggs from these samples were chilled and then incubated to facilitate hatching of N. filicollis, before larvae were recovered. The identity of the larvae was determined using PCR of the ITS-2 region of rDNA. The third experiment used a bulk collection of N. filicollis from naturally infected lambs. Extracted eggs were incubated at temperatures between 2.7°C - 9.9°C, for up to 224 days. The proportion of eggs hatching was assessed against chill units. Chill units (degree-day) were calculated by subtracting the culture temperature from a constant threshold of 11°C and multiplying by the number of days for which the sample was cultured. In Study 1, N. spathiger was present on all farms tested, while N. filicollis was found on 76% of farms. Both species were distributed throughout New Zealand, with no regional differences. In Study 2, the BZ-resistance study, efficacies below 95% were recorded for N. spathiger and N. filicollis on 95% (20/21) and 40% (4/10) respectively of farms tested. In Study 3, the chilling experiment, the overall hatching of N. filicollis eggs was low, but increased with chill accumulation to plateau at about 11%, with 800-1000 chill units required for maximum hatching. In conclusion the two species of Nematodirus were commonly found on most New Zealand farms. The prevalence of BZ-resistance in N. filicollis was lower than that in N. spathiger. N. filicollis required a considerable period of chilling to enable hatching to occur and this will influence their epidemiology.
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    Seed production in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Seed Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1992) Hare, Michael David
    The Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task ( PASAT ) was lateralised for the purpose of investigation into hemispheric specialisation for temporal integration. A right ear advantage ( REA ), representing a left hemisphere ( LH ) advantage in normal participants, was predicted due to the sequential nature of the PASAT, the previous finding of a REA by Norman ( 1984 ), and Miller's ( 1996 ) theory on the LH specialisation for delayed axonal conduction. The REA was also expected given other abundant evidence on LH superiority for the processing of temporal information ( Bradshaw & Nettleton, 1981; Bryson, Mononen, & Yu, 1980; Elfgren & Risberg, 1998; Gordon, 1978; Leek & Brandt, 1983; Prior, Kinsella, & Giese, 1990; Robinson, & Solomon, 1974; Troyer, Moscovitch, Winocur, Alexander, & Stuss, 1998 ). However, no REA was found in the present research. Careful precision in randomising and counterbalancing arithmetic outcomes, removal of the digit seven because of its two-syllable pronunciation, and the randomisation of ear of presentation and stimulus presentation rate, possibly eliminated procedural artefacts that were present in Norman's ( 1984 ) study. Therefore, despite the sequential nature of the PASAT it now appears to lack efficacy for research into temporal integration. Other findings from the present research instead showed support for the hypotheses of the right hemisphere's ( RH ) specialisation for vigilance ( Coslett, Bowers, & Heilman, 1987; Dimond, 1979; Heilman & van den Abell, 1979, 1980; Howes & Boller, 1975; Ladavas, Del Pesce, Mangun, & Gazzaniga, 1994; Ladavas, Del Pesce, & Provinciali, 1989; Loring, Meador, & Lee, 1989; Pardo, Fox, & Raichle, 1991; Simos & Molfese, 1997; Whitehead, 1991; Wilkins, Shallice, & McCarthy, 1987; Yokohama et al., 1987 ). For normal participants a left ear advantage ( LEA ) was found and more clearly demonstrated with an unpredictable task condition and with the faster presentation rates ( 1.2 & 2.0 s ) of the lateralised PASAT. The LEA was shown with both the same ear stimulus pairings ( LL ) and the left then right pairings ( LR ). Inferior performance with the right then left ( RL ) stimulus pairings was found in the unpredictable task condition and another task condition in which the side of stimulus presentation was predictable. Clinical participants (i.e., participants with a history of schizophrenia ) did not demonstrate a LEA, and they showed no difference compared to normal controls in performance with the right ear ( LH ). However, the clinical participants did manifest a particular disadvantage when stimulus processing required a shift from left to right ear ( LR ), but not the reverse ( RL ). The clinical participants manifested the LR deficit in the unpredictable and predictable task conditions. This LR disadvantage bears some resemblance to a previous finding, using the Visual Reaction Time Task, of a lateralised deficit in disengaging attention from the left visual field. Some researchers ( Bustillo et al., 1997; Posner, Early, Reiman, Pardo, & Dhawan, 1988; Posner & Raichle, 1994; Wigal, Swanson, & Potkin, 1997 ) interpret this LR deficit as a problem of slowness of responding by the LH ( right visual field ) after having attention oriented to the opposite field. However, the findings in the present research of a LEA for normal controls (i.e., LL and LR ), a relative deficit with RL for normals, and no difference in right ear ( RR ) performance between controls and clinical participants, and notably with the unpredictable condition, suggests an alternative interpretation. The LR deficit in schizophrenia may instead be due to difficulty in disengaging from the left visual or auditory field rather than impaired performance with the right field. The LR deficit may be as a result of dysfunction of vigilance, which is normally attributed to greater proficiency of the right hemisphere. In addition, opposing trends were observed for the clinical participants compared to the normal participants at particularly slow presentation rates, and with the predictable task condition in which stimuli were presented singularly to each hemisphere. Clinical participants showed a worsening of performance with the task. Normal participants demonstrated better performance with this task compared to another task condition, much like the standard PASAT, in which both ears received a stimulus simultaneously. These trends reflect Hellige's ( 1987, 1993 ) model of cross-hemispheric integration in which it is hypothesised that for normal participants single hemisphere processing has some advantage with lighter tasks. These trends also reflect the possibility that people with schizophrenia, in slow stimulus conditions, have difficulty whereby they unnecessarily over engage both hemispheres, which wastes attentional resource that could otherwise be utilised for various other aspects of ongoing processing.
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    Row spacing and seeding rate interactions in perennial ryegrass and tall fescue swards established by direct drilling (no-tillage) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1995) Praat, John-Paul
    Direct drilling is a popular and cost-effective method of introducing new, more productive pasture species into existing pasture on farms in New Zealand. The technique conserves both time and money, reduces moisture loss and the risk of soil erosion and offers some management benefits in intensive agricultural systems. Seed drills in New Zealand commonly used for pasture establishment sow seeds in rows at 150 mm centres. While this is an acceptable row spacing for cereal crops, eg. barley and wheat, closer row spacing has been proposed for establishing pastures. However, little research has been carried out to determine optimal row spacing or seeding rates. The benefit of cross-drilling with two passes of the drill, which is a practice thought to overcome the perceived inadequacies of 150mm row spacing, is also uncertain. This study was designed to investigate the effects of row spacing and cross-drilling, and the relative importance of plant population per unit area and per unit length of drill row on pasture establishment and development. Single pass sowing, at both 150 and 75mm row spacings together with cross-drilling were compared in an autumn sown field experiment. Two species of contrasting establishment vigour, perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and two seeding rates (12 and 23 and 17 and 31 kg ha-1 for perennial ryegrass and tall fescue respectively) were also compared. The trial was grazed by dairy cattle throughout the measurement periods. Emergence of 84 and 71 % of sown perennial ryegrass and tall fescue seed respectively, resulted in establishment of approximately 400-500 and 700-800 seedlings m-2 for medium and high seeding rates respectively for both species. Two years after sowing, medium to high seeding rates offered no advantage in terms of weed suppression or yield compared with low seeding rates. Cross-drilling offered no advantage for either species. Total herbage yield and the proportion of sown species was the same for perennial ryegrass and tall fescue established in either cross-drilled or 150 mm rows. This was the most important result, as far as the farmer is concerned, with potential cost savings of up to $100 per hectare by not carrying a second pass of the seed drill required for cross-drilling. The establishment performance of tall fescue in terms of herbage mass and suppression of weeds in the sward was initially improved with closer row spacing. These benefits were not apparent for perennial ryegrass. The advantage gained for fescue from reduced row spacing declined with time and by the second spring after sowing no difference was apparent between 150 and 75mm row spacing treatments. Thus, overall, drilling method had only a minor influence on botanical composition. Tall fescue was slower establishing and had more clover and weed in the sward compared with perennial ryegrass. This contrast in growth revealed the subtle influences of drilling method and seeding rate on pasture composition. A second trial, sown in the subsequent autumn, investigated the use of nitrogen with tall fescue at the time of sowing in both single pass and cross-drilling. The results supported those found for the effects of drilling pattern in the first trial. The use of nitrogen fertiliser in the damp, cool conditions of late autumn did not benefit sward development. Emergence of tall fescue was poorer at this time. In contrast to the results of Trial 1, increasing the seeding rate resulted in increases in initial seedling population and improved the performance of tall fescue. There was a higher proportion and herbage mass of sown species in the sward sown at the higher seed rate. This suggests that higher seeding rates may be required for tall fescue as conditions at sowing become cooler. However, the early advantage from the higher seeding rates was not apparent 10 months after sowing. Clover emergence was low at 46 and 52% of sown viable seed for the first and second trials respectively. However, a clover seedling population in excess of 150 plants m-2 was established in both trials which proved to be an adequate population for development of productive pasture. Drills designed for sowing aggressive species such as perennial ryegrass need not incorporate the option of reducing row spacing from the common 150mm with the subsequent cost disadvantages. However, the option of reduced row spacing may be appropriate for drills designed for sowing less vigorous alternative species such as tall fescue. Increased seeding rates and cross-drilling should not be necessary for successful establishment of a productive pasture sward of temperate species. This leads to improvements in efficiency of seed drill operation in the field.
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    Mediterranean and temperate tall fescues : physiological and morphological responses to water deficit, and the effect of nitrogen on winter and early-spring field performance under grazing : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Plant Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1998) Assuero, Silvia Graciela
    A major goal for grazing systems is to increase winter herbage growth. Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) has been widely recognised as one of the most important cool season forage species. Among tall fescue populations, those of Mediterranean origin (e.g. F. arundinacea var. letourneuxiana from North Africa) have shown higher growth rates in winter and early-spring than comparable germplasm from northen Europe. For this reason, the complementary use of Mediterranean and temperate tall fescue populations to improve continuity of seasonal forage supply has been suggested for the Pampa region, Argentina. It is known, however, that the low winter N availability of the region limits herbage growth and that water deficits are likely to occur. It has been found that endophyte-infected tall fescue plants tolerate drought better than endophyte-free ones and currently novel endophyte strains harmless to livestock are commercially available. This study therefore sought to compare the responses of Mediterranean and temperate tall fescue cultivars to water deficit, to investigate the extent to which water deficit responses are modified by the presence or absence of endophyte, and to compare winter-early spring growth and animal production of two contrasting cultivars with and without N fertilisation in the Pampa region. Three glasshouse experiments were carried out to evaluate the response of contrasting tall fescue cultivars to water deficit. In the first experiment two temperate cultivars. Grasslands Advance (GA) and El Palenque (EP), and a Mediterranean cultivar, Maris Kasba (MK), were studied. Water deficit was induced by complete cessation of watering and sequential harvests were made to follow the adjustment of the respective cultivars. Morphological measurements also included the distribution of mass and length of root with depth. In the second experiment, only MK and EP were studied. Plants of both cultivars were grown in the same pots and received water daily with gradation in intensity of water deficit achieved by varying the daily water ration per pot. Reducing and fructosyl sugar concentrations were analysed to examine cultivar differences and to investigate whether these sugars were involved in osmotic adjustment. The third experiment compared MK and EP cultivars under water deficit, but in addition the effects of two endophytes. Kentucky 31 wild type (KY31) and a commercial strain supplied by AgResearch (AR501), were studied. Herbage growth and animal production in winter-early spring of MK and EP swards in response to N fertilisation were compared in a grazing experiment carried out in the SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. The N treatments were zero and 100 kg N ha-1 applied in equal split dressings in mid autumn and early winter. The paddocks were grazed by a variable number of growing steers in order to maintain a similar leaf area index (LAI) in all treatments. The results of the water deficit experiments indicated that in comparison with the temperate cultivars EP and GA, the Mediterranean cultivar MK was characterised by a smaller plant size, higher tiller number, high root: shoot ratio, a lower stomatal resistance, lower content of reducing and fructosyl sugars and a lower growth rate under high temperatures. All tall fescue cultivars exhibited decreased growth rates, diminished evaporative surface area, and increased root: shoot ratio and osmotic adjustment in response to water deficit. A similar water status was observed for the different cultivars under comparable soil water availability. There was evidence that MK was able to delay onset of water deficit through its morphological characteristics. By contrast, stomatal resistance of temperate cultivars was more responsive to soil moisture changes and these cultivars had a greater tendency for osmotic adjustment than MK under the most stressful water deficit conditions studied. For the particular cultivars and endophytes strains studied here, the experimental evidence suggests that MK-KY31 and EP-AR501 combinations would be expected to perform better under water deficit than other combinations. Maris Kasba swards had a higher stocking rate during mid winter-early spring, and consequently, the beef production was 26% higher than in EP swards. With N fertilisation the response was markedly increased and beef production was increased by 66% during the same period. However, by late August no differences in tissue turnover were found between cultivars, while in September EP showed a higher net growth rate (NGR) than MK. For both periods N application increased the NGR of the swards. Further studies would be necessary to evaluate the recovery capacity after drought of the cultivars evaluated and the ability for osmotic adjustment in the meristematic tissues as well as their behaviour under field conditions. Because the particular performance characteristics of each endophyte strain-grass genotype combination vary, it is recommended that any endophyte strain be evaluated in combination with the plant genotypes with which it is to be associated. The complementary use of temperate and Mediterranean cultivars in animal production systems of the SE of Buenos Aires Province improved feed supply during winter. In addition, winter herbage growth and animal production of both cultivar types can be considerably improved with N fertilisation.