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Item Energy intake and energy balance in New Zealand elite female football academy players : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) McConnochie, JosieBackground: Energy is a fundamental requirement for all biological processes, making adequate dietary energy intake (EI) critical to the health and athletic performance of athletes. Playing football at the elite level is an energetically expensive activity. Research in female footballers is limited; however, due to the negative consequences of being in a state of problematic low energy availability (pLEA), further investigation is needed to assess the adequacy of female footballers’ EI in supporting physiological function and demands of training. Objectives: Determine the energy intake (EI) and energy balance (EB) of elite under 20 female Football Academy players in New Zealand and if low carbohydrate (CHO) intake is a factor that increases the risk of low EB. Methods: Twenty-four female footballers who were part of the Wellington Phoenix U20 Football Academy team in New Zealand participated in this study. Participants were asked to complete a three-day dietary record on one light training day, one heavy training day, and one pre-game rest day. Energy intake was analysed via Foodworks V.1.0 software. For training, exercise energy expenditure (EEE) was estimated using a human motion tracking device (Playermaker, Israel). Paired sample t-tests or Wilcoxon Signed Rank test (non-parametric data) were utilised for comparisons between EI, EEE and EB on different training days. Significance was determined by a p-value of < 0.05. Results: The average EI for participants on light training, heavy training, and pre-game rest days was 1758.7 ± 549.5 kcal, 1910.1 ± 611.2 kcal and 1805.8 ± 533.2 kcal respectively, with no significant differences in EI between training days. The average relative carbohydrate intake ranged between 1.4 – 6.7 g‧kg- ¹ across all training days, failing to collectively meet sports nutrition recommendations. The average EB across all training days was 297.1 ± 491.6 kcal with no significant differences between days of data collection. Across the three training days, 25.0% of female development players were in a negative EB. A very strong, significant positive correlation was found between average EI and average EB (R=0.980, n=24, P=<0.01). There was no significant correlation found between average EI and average EEE (p=0.909) or average EEE and average EB (p=0.538). Conclusion: The results of this study suggest that female footballers fail to match their EI to their EEE, and a high proportion of players at the elite development level in New Zealand are in a negative EB, which could increase their risk of pLEA.Item The effect of the evening meal (timing and content) on sleep quantity and quality measures in the Wellington Phoenix female U20 academy football team : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Younger, CourtneyIntro: Obtaining sufficient sleep quantity and quality is fundamental for physical recovery and mental well-being of high-performance football athletes. Nutritional strategies to improve sleep for athletes are emerging in the literature. Evening dietary factors such as energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake, and the timing of which they are consumed, has been shown to support sleep quantity and quality. However, the evidence in the athletic population remains highly variable and inconclusive and research on this topic in football athletes, particularly female footballers, is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the evening meal timing, energy intake, and macronutrient composition (e.g. carbohydrate, protein, and fat) on the quantity and quality of sleep for players in the Wellington Phoenix Female U20 Academy Football Team. Methods: Twenty-five members of the Wellington Phoenix Female U20 Academy Football Team (17.6 ± 1.1 years) participated in this study. Participants completed three 24-hour food records and wore a WHOOP® wristband continuously to track their sleep on one light training day (LTD), one heavy training day (HTD), and one pre-game rest day (PGRD) over one week during the Capital Football Talent Development Programme League season. Evening dietary intake was determined by FoodWorks10 Software using the New Zealand and Australian food composition databases. Sleep onset time, total sleep time (TST), and wake periods (WP) were measured by WHOOP®. Comparison of dietary and sleep measures for each data collection day was conducted by a one-way ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis test. Pearson’s correlation coefficient tests were used to determine the correlation between sleep and dietary values. For data that were non-parametric, displayed as median (25th, 75th percentiles), Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. Results: The average evening meal intakes were energy 638.9 kcal, 95% CI [569.9, 718.6]; carbohydrate 59.2 g, 95% CI [51.5, 68.1]; protein 32.3 g, 95% CI [28.7, 36.4]; and fat 23.6 g (25th, 75th percentiles: 15.3, 38.9). The average sleep quantity and quality were TST 468.0 ± 65.3 minutes and WP 12.7 ± 5.6, respectively. Of note, 22.2% to 81.8% of players gained suboptimal TST across the three training days according to recommended sleep guidelines. The average -me between the evening meal and sleep start was 221.7 minutes (25th, 75th percentiles: 167.9, 271.6). No significant differences were found in energy, protein, fat, TST, WP, and -me between the three training days. The evening carbohydrate intake was higher on the HTD compared to the LTD (p=0.026). On the PGRD, for every 1 kcal increase in evening energy intake, TST increased by 0.14 minutes (b=0.14, 95% CI [0.04, 0.23], p=0.008), while for every 1 g increase in evening fat intake, TST increased by 1.40 minutes (b=1.40, 95% CI [0.03, 0.34], p=0.021). For every 1% increase in evening carbohydrate intake, TST increased by 1.84 minutes (ß=1.84, 95% CI [0.01, 3.59], p=0.041). Conclusion: This study confirms that poor sleep quantity is prevalent in adolescent footballers who are part of the Wellington Phoenix Female U20 Academy Football Team. This research provides valuable insight into the evening meal habits of adolescent female footballers and shows a positive influence of evening energy, carbohydrate, and fat intake on TST on a PGRD. Therefore, future research may need to review energy and carbohydrate strategies to aid sleep for athletes before competitions or events.Item Female athlete perceptions of food and beverage sport sponsorship : an exploratory study of health connotations and nutrition factors in a New Zealand context : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, Aotearoa New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Suerte Felipe, AlyannaObjectives: Sponsorships are commonly used as a medium to market products that are not aligned with a healthy lifestyle (Batty et al., 2016; Batty & Gee, 2019; Dixon et al., 2018; Kelly et al., 2011; Maher et al., 2006). Parallel to this is the transformative shift in the landscape of female sports, whereby female participation and visibility in sports have increased drastically, driven by wider media coverage and the growth of public interest in female athletic achievements (Morgan, 2018; Navaratnam, 2017). Consequently, it is important to explore the specific realm of food and beverage sponsorship in the context of female athletes in New Zealand. The aim of this research is to establish an understanding of female athlete thoughts and perspectives relating to food and beverage sponsors of female sport in New Zealand. In alignment with this aim, a specific focus will be placed on the perceptions of health connotations and nutritional composition of food and beverage sponsor products. Methods: A small exploratory case study was conducted that involved a series of qualitative semi-structured interviews with female athletes from the Massey University Sport Academy. A total of 14 athletes were interviewed. Athletes who took part in the study were engaged in sport at various levels of their careers. Study participants were questioned in regards to their perceptions around sport sponsorships, particularly of food and beverage, the alignment (or misalignment) of sponsorships with their values of health and athletic performance, and the influence of sponsorships on their athletic image. Results: Key findings suggest that while female athletes perceive sponsorships positively for financial backing and viability, there is a growing concern surrounding the endorsement of sponsor brands that do not align with the personal values of the female athletes. Findings revealed that many athletes feel discomfort in sponsoring ‘unhealthy’ food and beverage brands, such as fast food chains and sugary beverages, as it contradicts the health-centric image they endorse as athletes in the field of sports. Female athletes expressed the need for sponsorship arrangements that offer products beneficial for their athletic performance and overall health. The objectives of this study were further supported by a series of hypotheses, with the results supporting those hypotheses to varying extents. Conclusion: In noting that this study was designed as an exploratory case study, the results offer initial insight into female athlete perspectives of sport sponsorship and the types of food and beverage products that may be more appropriately aligned with female sport. The findings of this study suggest there is justification for further research into this area. Further research could include focus upon broader government-level frameworks to promote ethical sponsorships in sports sponsorships.Item A comparison of systemic inflammation pre- and post- exercise between vegans and omnivores : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Duncan, SarahIntroduction: Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) triggers an inflammatory response essential for muscle repair and recovery. The impact of habitual dietary patterns on this response is not well understood. Aim: This study investigated whether nutrient source (i.e., vegan or omnivorous diet) has an impact on the systemic inflammatory response or muscle damage markers following an eccentric exercise protocol. Methods: Three vegans (2 males; 32.3 ± 5.78 years; 63.4 ± 16.9 kg; 173.7 ± 9.5 cm; 20.8 ± 3.4 BMI) and seven omnivores (6 females; 25.0 ± 5.34 years; 70.9 ± 8.5 kg; 167.9 ± 8.2 cm, 24.1 ± 2.5 BMI) underwent an eccentric exercise protocol involving 200 drop jumps. Muscle damage marker CKM, and inflammatory biomarkers IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 were analysed from plasma collected at baseline and 0 h, 1 h, 3 h, 24 h, 48 h, 72 h post-exercise. Participants followed a macronutrient-matched meal plan and consumed a standardised meal post-exercise. Results: IL-6 increased over time (P= 0.005), however there was no difference between diets (P= 0.225). IL-1β, IL-10 and CKM did not change over time (P= 0.371, P=0.097 and P=0.491, respectively) or differ between diets (P= 0.925, P= 0.821 and P= 0.296, respectively). Dietary analysis of participants’ habitual diets showed vegans had significantly lower intakes of cholesterol (P= 0.007), and dietary folate equivalents (P= 0.040). Dietary analysis of participants’ intake during the trial showed vegans had significantly lower intakes of cholesterol (P= 0.010), niacin equivalent (P= 0.028), and vitamin B6 (P= 0.032). Daily intake of fibre, folate, vitamin A, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, selenium, calcium, and zinc were below recommended levels for the vegans. Whereas daily intake of calcium was below recommended levels for the omnivores. Conclusion: The study found no significant differences in systemic inflammatory or muscle damage markers between habitual vegan or omnivorous diets following eccentric exercise. Despite significant differences in nutrient intake between diets, the eccentric exercise protocol was not strenuous enough to produce notable systemic stress detectable by the biomarkers measured. The small sample size limited the study’s power, highlighting the need for further research with larger samples and more comprehensive assessments, including, for example, muscle ultrasound for assessment of muscle damage, additional inflammatory biomarkers (e.g., IL-4 and IL-1ra), and plasma lipid panels and plasma nutrient levels. Future studies should continue to explore the effects of whole dietary patterns on muscle recovery and inflammation without inducing nutrient deficiencies or excessive supplementation.Item Risk of low energy availability and level of nutrition knowledge in recreational trail runners in Aotearoa/New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Human Nutrition, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Buch, TinaIntroduction: Trail running as an endurance sport is growing in popularity. It is characterised by long event durations and extreme environments that are likely to result in high exercise energy expenditure. Energy availability is defined as the amount of energy available to support normal physiological functions after subtracting the energy cost of exercise from energy intake. Insufficient energy intake, increased exercise, or a combination of both can result in a state of low energy availability (LEA). Research has demonstrated a high prevalence of risk of LEA (~19%-85%) among both elite and recreational athletes, across both sexes and in endurance sports such as running. One possible contributor to LEA risk is poor nutrition knowledge. However, little is known about the risk of LEA and nutrition knowledge in trail runners. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of LEA risk in recreational trail runners and investigate associations with nutrition knowledge. Methods: This study was a cross-sectional study of adult trail runners in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The study required the completion of an amalgamated survey consisting of the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q), the Low Energy Availability in Males Questionnaire (LEAM-Q), and the Platform for Evaluating Athlete Knowledge in Sports Nutrition Questionnaire (PEAKS-NQ). Demographics and trail-running experience questions were integrated into the survey. LEAF-Q scores ≥8 were classified as LEA risk, and for LEAM Q, a higher score indicated lower sex drive. Data were analysed in SPSS version 29 (IBM Corporation). Comparisons between groups (e.g. ‘low LEA risk’ vs. ‘LEA risk’) were performed using a chi-square test for categorical variables, and an independent samples t-test for continuous variables. Results are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Results: The final survey sample was 217 (140 females, 42.0 ± 10.7 years; 77 males, 47.9 ± 12.1 years) for the LEAF-Q, LEAM-Q, and trail running questions; and 152 for the PEAKS-NQ. Participants ranged from beginners to very experienced trail runners who regularly participated in short 5-9km events through to ultramarathons. Thirty-one percent of females met the classification for LEA risk. Twenty-three percent of males were identified as having low sex drive, a marker of LEA risk. The LEAF-Q/sex drive score was higher in those with LEA risk (10.7 ± 2.3 / 4.5 ± 2.0) compared to those with low LEA risk (3.9 ± 2.3 / 1.5 ± 1.1, p < .001). Education, body mass index, weekly training hours and level of trail running experience did not differ between trail runners with LEA risk or low LEA risk. However, females with LEA risk were younger (38.0 ± 12.6 vs. 43.6 ± 9.4, P < .05), and more likely to report a weight change in the last six months (75.9% vs. 40.3%, P < 0.5). Males with LEA risk more readily reported a chronic illness (23.5% vs. 6.8%, P < 0.5) or food allergy/intolerance (27.7% vs. 8.6%, P < 0.5). For the general nutrition knowledge questions, 78.6 ± 10.1% for females and 75.8 ± 10.7% for males were answered correctly. However, sports nutrition scores were lower (females, 66.3 ± 13.4%; males, 63.2 ± 15.5%) with the lowest mean scores observed for ‘fuel for during events’ (8.8% correct). There was no difference in nutrition knowledge between individuals classified as low LEA risk vs LEA risk. Conclusion: The findings suggest that recreational trail runners are a group of active individuals who are at risk of LEA and that they might benefit from more sports-specific nutrition education.Item Nutrient source (vegan vs. omnivorous diet) : impact on the recovery of muscle function and performance after damaging exercise : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Duncan, BenPurpose: This study investigated if the source of nutrients from vegan and omnivorous diets affects the recovery of muscle function and performance following damaging exercise. Methods: Three (3) vegans (mean age 32.3 ± 5.77 years; 63.4 ± 16.9 kg; 173.7 ± 9.5 cm) and seven (7) omnivores (mean age 25 ± 5.35 years; 70.9 ± 8.5 kg; 167.9 ± 8.2 cm) underwent a muscle-damaging exercise protocol involving 200 drop jumps. At baseline, and 0 h, 1 h, 3 h, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h post-exercise maximal isometric voluntary contraction (MIVC), rate of force development (RFD), countermovement jump height (CMJ), pressure pain threshold (PPT), pain at rest (overall and by specific muscle), and pain during CMJ and MIVC were measured to assess muscle function, performance and soreness. Participants followed a macronutrient-matched meal plan and consumed a standardised meal post-exercise. Results: A significant interaction effect of time x diet on Pain Rest, and Pain MIVC existed. Post-hoc analysis found significantly lower MIVC in vegans at 24 h (P = 0.04), Pain Rest to be significantly higher in vegans at 3 h (P = 0.02), Pain during CMJ (P = 0.015) and MIVC (P = 0.02) at 24 h was significantly higher in vegans as well as Pain during MIVC at 3 h (P = 0.02), PPT Rectus Femoris at 1 h significantly higher in omnivores, and vegans experienced significantly sorer left (P=0.016) and right (P=0.015) calves, left (P=0.039) and right (P=0.039) inner thighs, and left (P=0.02) and right (P=0.025) outer thighs at 3h. A significant main effect of time on MIVC, CMJ, Pain Rest (overall and by muscle), Pain CMJ and MIVC, PPT Rectus Femoris, PPT Vastus Lateralis, and PPT Vastus Medialis. No significant main effects of diet were found. Although, ‘large’ effect sizes existed for many variables. Most nutrients involved in muscle recovery showed no differences between diets other than Vitamin C with near significance (P = 0.054). Based on current literature, other nutrients that may have differed but were not quantified in this study were Creatine, L-Carnitine, Vitamin D, Anthocyanins, and Ellagitannins. Conclusion: It appeared that the omnivore diet group experienced lower reductions in MIVC as compared to the vegan diet group who experienced increased pain at rest (overall and by muscle group) and during activity. The small sample size likely prevented the findings of this study from reaching statistical significance so further, more powerful research addressing this study’s limitations should be performed before recommendations can be made.Item Effect of a novel carbohydrate blend on exogenous- and endogenous-carbohydrate utilisation and high-intensity endurance performance : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 14th March 2026(Massey University, 2024) Murphy, AlexandraBackground: Ingestion of fructose and glucose/maltodextrin at ratios close to unity during high-intensity endurance exercise enhances exogenous-carbohydrate oxidation and endurance metrices, relative to single carbohydrates or fructose-glucose/maltodextrin blends at different ratios. This thesis explored the effects of other carbohydrate blends on metabolism and performance.--Shortened abstractItem The effect of different doses of nitrate from beetroot juice on exercise performance and cognitive function in healthy female and male recreational exercisers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 29th January 2026.(Massey University, 2024) Harrison, BriannaThe effect of different doses of nitrate from beetroot juice on exercise performance and cognitive function in healthy female and male recreational exercisers. Dietary nitrate supplementation has been shown to improve endurance exercise following acute and long-term supplementation periods as the bioactive form of nitrate, nitric oxide, works within the body to create greater blood flow and therefore oxygen delivery to working muscles through enhanced vasodilation. Limited studies have researched the effects of long-term nitrate supplementation through beetroot juice with female and male recreational athletes. This study investigated if intake of varying doses of dietary nitrate from beetroot juice affect cognitive and exercise performance in recreational female and male athletes due to their reduced cardiovascular systems following a 7-day supplementation period.--Shortened abstractItem Macronutrient intakes of adolescent rowers for growth, development and sports performance : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Watts, SamanthaIntroduction: Dietary intake plays a central role in athletic performance in competitive rowing (Cornford & Metcalfe, 2019). During moderate training, it is recommended that adolescent athletes aim for 5.0-7.0 g.kg-¹ of carbohydrates, 1.3-1.8 g.kg-¹ of protein, and 20-35% energy from fat (Desbrow et al., 2014). Suboptimal nutrition within the adolescent rowing population may negatively impact growth and development, rowing performance, professional athlete development and career longevity. Previous research has indicated that suboptimal carbohydrate intake is a common issue in rowing (Baranauskas et al., 2014). The quality of dietary intake in adolescent rowers has seldom been explored. This study aimed to examine the dietary intake of adolescent rowers in New Zealand and compare it with nutritional guidelines for normal growth, development, and sports performance. Methods: A cross-sectional study design involved data collection on two hard training days and two recovery days from rowers aged 14-21 years from around New Zealand. During the four 24-hour collection periods participants recorded food intake, training duration and intensity. The food records were verified for accuracy, and dietary data was entered into Foodworks software for nutritional analysis. IBM SPSS software was used to calculate the mean intake and standard deviations for carbohydrate, protein, and dietary fat. Independent t-tests were used to compare the carbohydrate and protein intakes between males and females. Results: Of the initial 40 participants, 35 fully (females n=23, 16.8±1.9 years; males n=12, 17.3±1.6 years) completed the study. Participants consumed 319±116 g (4.5±1.7 g.kg-¹.day-¹) of carbohydrates, 121±56 g (1.7±0.7 g.kg-¹.day-¹) of protein and 113±46 g (1.6±0.6 g.kg-¹.day-¹) of fat per day. Females consumed 290±80 g (4.4±1.3 g.kg-¹.day-¹) of carbohydrates and males consumed 400±78 g (5.0±1.4 g.kg-¹.day-¹) per day, with no significant difference between males and females intake per kilogram of bodyweight per day (p=0.165). Minimum carbohydrate levels of 5.0 g.kg-¹ per day were only achieved by seven females (30.4%) and four (33.3%) males. Females consumed significantly less protein per day, 106±38 g (1.6±0.6 g.kg-¹.day-¹), in comparison to males who consumed 164±46 g (2.0±0.5 g.kg-¹.day-¹) per day (p=0.04). Fourteen females (60.9%) and ten males (83.3%) consumed more than the minimum requirement of 1.3 g.kg-¹ of protein per day. Conclusion: The findings suggest that two out of three adolescent rowers in New Zealand fail to reach the minimum recommendation for carbohydrate intake (Desbrow et al., 2014), and males more readily meet the recommended intakes of protein when compared to females. Nutrition education for adolescent rowers in New Zealand should emphasise adequate carbohydrate and protein intakes that meet sports nutrition guidelines in order to support normal growth, development and optimised performance for these athletes.Item The effects of CYP1A2 gene polymorphisms on caffeine pharmacokinetics and exercise performance : a thesis presented in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Masters, ChloeBackground: Caffeine is one of the most popular psychoactive stimulants consumed globally. The CYP1A2 gene encodes the cytochrome P450 1A2 enzyme, found in the liver, which is predominantly responsible (~95%) for caffeine metabolism in the body. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the non-coding region of the CYP1A2 gene (CYP1A2; rs762551) induces different expression levels of the enzyme, influencing the clearance rate of caffeine from the body. There are equivocal results as to whether the CYP1A2 genotype is a determinant of exercise performance following supplementation with caffeine. This lack of consensus may be due to differences in trial designs, including mixed exercise modes, and solely male, or mixed sex participant cohorts with most studies using a caffeine dose of between 3-6 mg·kg-¹, and commencing exercise 60-min following caffeine ingestion. Purpose: This research aimed to determine if 6 mg·kg-¹ caffeine ingested 60-min prior to commencing exercise impacts performance, and to identify if the CYP1A2 gene, and consequent caffeine metabolism rates, has a role in improving exercise performance following caffeine consumption. Methods: Thirty-eight healthy, recreationally active, male athletes were recruited for this study. All participants were classified as moderate caffeine users. Participants attended one familiarisation session, where their body composition was measured, practiced a 1-km run or 40-km cycle, and provided saliva samples for genotyping to identify their specific CYP1A2 SNP. Two follow up sessions were undertaken one week apart, with participants completing either a 10-km run or 40- km cycle following the ingestion of an anhydrous caffeine capsule (6 mg·kg-¹) or placebo (maltodextrin) following randomised, placebo-controlled double-blind protocols. Blood sampling was undertaken before, during and following exercise in the two exercise trials to measure plasma caffeine, paraxanthine and theophylline concentrations. Results: Caffeine supplementation improved exercise performance by 1.8% (p=0.05; ηp²=0.12), with greater improvements in performance seen in the second half of exercise (2.4%; p=0.02; ηp²=0.16) in comparison with the first half (1.2%). Twenty-four of the 34 participants whose data were used to analyse time to completion, showed an improvement in exercise performance with caffeine ingestion. Heart rate was higher in participants following caffeine ingestion compared to placebo (p=0.02; ηp²=0.15). Genotyping showed 50% of participants were homozygous AA allele carriers and 50% heterozygous AC allele carriers. No participants carried the CC allele polymorphism. Plasma caffeine concentrations were higher in AA allele carriers than AC allele carriers (p=0.05; ηp²=0.207). No gene-treatment interaction effects were observed in time to completion, heart rate (HR) or plasma concentrations of paraxanthine or theophylline. A significantly higher total sum of plasma caffeine was observed in the area under the concentration time curve (AUC) in AA allele carriers compared with AC allele carriers (p=0.01). Conclusion: Ingesting a dose of 6 mg·kg-¹ caffeine 60 min prior to exercise is likely to improve performance in endurance activities in recreationally trained males. Plasma caffeine concentrations were significantly higher in AA allele carriers compared to AC allele carriers, though no gene caffeine interaction was observed in time to completion, therefore the role of CYP1A2 gene polymorphisms and caffeine consumption in determining enhancements in exercise performance remains unclear.
