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Item The causal impact of living arrangements on quality of life among older New Zealanders : the moderating effects of age and social connectedness : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology, Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 2025) Kang, XinyueThis study examines the causal relationships between living arrangements (LA) and the quality of life (QoL) of older adults in Aotearoa New Zealand, with a specific focus on the moderating roles of age, gender, and social connectedness. Drawing on longitudinal data from the New Zealand Health, Work and Retirement Study (NZHWRS), this research employs the CASP-12 model to examine the psychosocial dimensions of QoL. Specifically, it investigates how the sub-dimensions: autonomy, control, self-realisation, and enjoyment, contribute to overall QoL, particularly in relation to various LA. The findings reveal that living arrangements (outside of institutionalised settings) play a pivotal role in shaping the QoL of older adults. Independent living arrangements often promoted as supporting autonomy, self-esteem, and personal agency in older adults was in fact identified as being accompanied by elevated risks of loneliness and social isolation, particularly among individuals with limited social networks or familial support. In contrast, intergenerational living arrangements or being with a partner, provide opportunities for enhanced social connectedness and emotional support. Most notably older adults were found to derive greater overall QoL when living with their families. even when this came at the expense of reduced personal autonomy. Age and gender emerged as significant moderators in the relationship between LA and QoL. Older women and individuals in advanced age cohorts exhibited distinctive patterns of QoL outcomes, underscoring the importance of tailored interventions. Moreover, the buffering effects of social connectedness were prominent, with active participation in social activities and employment serving as critical protective factors against isolation and diminished well-being. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of "ageing in place" strategies, which, while beneficial in promoting independence, must be complemented by robust community-based social support systems to mitigate unintended negative outcomes. This research addresses critical gaps in the existing literature by providing a nuanced understanding of the interplay between living arrangements, psychosocial factors, and demographic characteristics in influencing the QoL of older adults. The findings have substantial implications for both academic discourse, public policy and practice. Recommendations include fostering inclusive, age-friendly communities, enhancing social infrastructure, and developing policies that balance autonomy with collective support to ensure the dignity, health, and well-being of New Zealand's ageing population. By integrating theoretical insights with empirical evidence, this study contributes to the evolving discourse on healthy ageing and offers practical solutions for improving QoL outcomes in diverse living arrangements.Item The relationship between income adequacy and cognitive function : an Aotearoa New Zealand lens : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science of Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2025) Sinclair, BaileyBackground Globally, ageing populations have increased health concerns for cognitive decline. International and local studies have extensively documented the influence of modifiable factors such as socioeconomic status on cognitive functioning. However, there has been limited research specifically on the association of income adequacy and cognitive functioning in Aotearoa New Zealand. Income adequacy is the self-perception that an individual is able to meet their everyday needs through their current income. This thesis aims to address this gap. Methods A cross-sectional study was completed with 970 participants from around Aotearoa New Zealand as part of the New Zealand Health, Work and Retirement (NZHWR) cohort study of ageing. Recruitment for NZHWR involved random sampling from the electoral roll and over-sampling of those identifying themselves as a person of Māori descent for adequate representation of Aotearoa New Zealand’s Indigenous population. This study consists of a survey, administered in 2010, which includes self-report questionnaires that comprise the assessment of income adequacy, and face-to-face assessments which have informed the cognitive functioning of the study population. Furthermore, the self-reported questionnaires were utilised to collect sociodemographic characteristics and information on living conditions of participants. Linear regression was used to assess the association between income adequacy and cognitive functioning. Further testing was completed to understand the relationship between age, gender, ethnicity, education, marital status, employment, area-based socioeconomic deprivation, and area of residence with income adequacy. Results The results indicated there was an association between higher levels of income adequacy and higher cognitive functioning. The findings also highlighted gender, ethnicity, education level, and area-based socioeconomic deprivation levels to be associated with cognitive functioning. Low area-based deprived living conditions were also found to be associated with higher cognitive functioning. Further ingroup testing revealed the distribution of levels of income adequacy amongst sociodemographic characteristics and living conditions. Conclusions This thesis provides insight into the importance of an adequate income for cognitive functioning in older adults. It reveals higher adequate income is associated with higher cognitive functioning among older adults in Aotearoa New Zealand. Furthermore, findings showed important differences in the distribution of adequate income levels with age, gender, ethnicity, education, marital status, employment, area-based socioeconomic deprivation levels, and area of residence. The findings and derived recommendations of this thesis seek to contribute to informing Aotearoa New Zealand policies and systemic reform, suggesting that adequate income may be an important factor for good cognitive functioning. Further research is required to understand the longitudinal effects of income adequacy on cognitive functioning.Item Emotional and social loneliness as mediators of chronic conditions and depression in older adults in Aotearoa : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Distance, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Nicholson, ThomasBackground and Objectives: Aotearoa New Zealand is experiencing an acceleration in its ageing population that will present economic and health challenges for its people and healthcare systems. Modern changes in healthcare enable people to live longer but have come with increased chronic conditions. Adding to this burden, older adults are vulnerable to psychological problems such as depression, itself often considered a chronic condition. Searching for ways to understand and prevent depression in older adults, researchers discovered connections with both chronic conditions and loneliness. The relationship between chronic conditions, loneliness, and depression is complex and not well understood. While considerable research suggests that these components are related, a dearth of research addresses all three components concurrently. Given that chronic conditions are potential risk factors for both depression and loneliness and that loneliness may predict depression, it is conceivable that loneliness may mediate the relationship between chronic conditions and depression. Consequently, it may be possible to prevent or alleviate depression in older adults experiencing chronic conditions by addressing loneliness. Method: Analyses used survey data from 3,011 participants aged 55-91 years taken from two waves of the New Zealand Health, Work and Retirement Study. Two structural equation models tested the relationship between chronic conditions and depression, between multimorbidity and depression, and whether emotional or social loneliness mediated the relationships. Covariates included age, ethnicity, gender, partner status, and SES measured as living standards. Results: SEM analyses found that sleep disorder and multimorbidity predicted depression and that sleep disorder predicted social and emotional loneliness while multimorbidity predicted emotional loneliness. Additionally, SES predicted depression and both types of loneliness. However, loneliness did not mediate either relationship. Conclusion: The current study supports prior research findings that sleep disorder and multimorbidity predict depression. This study further provides a valuable contribution to the literature investigating the relationship between SES when measured as living standards and depression in older people and aligns with the considerable research on the importance of inequalities and their negative impact on health outcomes.Item “It’s just your age, you gotta expect that” : older adults’ experiences of ageism in healthcare : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Sunitsch, NieveAgeism towards older adults in healthcare has historically been researched and understood quantitatively with specific focus on objectivity and the particular from the perspective of healthcare providers. The purpose of this study was to explore the subjective experience of ageism in this context from the accounts of older adults themselves. With Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as the framework for this study, three older adults were interviewed to deepen this understanding across different angles. Five themes emerged from participants’ accounts. The Foundational Components of Ageism centred around participants’ confidence of age as the cause of their treatment. Their confidence was influenced by their assessment of why and how often ageism occurred alongside recognition that differential treatment began in their older years. Complexity of Self-Advocacy highlighted why participants advocated for themselves and the approaches they took. This did not always have the intended outcome and support on behalf of another individual was often needed to stop discrimination. Removal From Situations described how the emotions participants experienced by not having their voices heard motivated them to step away from the situation. The Impact of Ageism delved into the varied and sometimes opposite ways participants were affected. Lastly, Non-Ageist Experiences detailed the positive encounters in healthcare. For participants, this signified what they wanted or expected to see throughout the system. This thesis is one of a small number of studies that focuses on the older adult perspective and has contributed to the study of ageism in healthcare research. By using IPA, the findings demonstrate how experiences of discrimination can share similarities while uncovering different ways to conceptualise ageism towards older adults.Item Depression and loneliness as mediators of purpose in life and quality of life in older adults : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Distance, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Williams, AleishaObjective: Worldwide populations are aging. This can potentially be a valuable resource to both the older individual and their communities or an ethical burden. A key factor in determining the potential opportunities that arise from these extra years of life is well being. It is therefore important to understand determinants that foster healthy aging and well being through maximising functional ability and enabling engagement in things that matter to them. This study utilises Quality of Life as a holistic measure of a well-being in older age. The existing literature has provided some support for Purpose in Life, Loneliness, and Depression as being associated with each other; it also suggests they are important pre determinants of older adult Quality of Life. Based on previous literature it is possible the relationship between Purpose in Life and Quality of Life is partially mediated by Loneliness and Depression. Method: A structural equation model tested the longitudinal relationship between Purpose in Life and Quality of Life, and the potential parallel mediating effect of Loneliness and Depression, while controlling for Age, Gender, Marital Status, Social Support, Social Isolation and Socioeconomic Status. Sample: The analysis used observational survey-based secondary data obtained from three waves of the New Zealand Health, Work and Retirement Study. The participants represented older adults living in New Zealand, aged 55 years and over. Results: Correlational analysis found significant correlational relationships between the latent variables. Regression analysis found positive direct (B = .243) and indirect total effect (B = .227) relationships between Purpose in Life and Quality of Life. However, indirect effects were not significant when one mediator was controlled for. Conclusion: The current research supports prior findings that Purpose in Life predicts future Quality of Life in older adults and offers an important contribution towards future interventions aimed at older adult well-being. The mixed mediating results suggest further research is needed to understand the role of Loneliness and Depression as potential pathways between Purpose in Life and Quality of Life.Item Exploring older Cantabrian’s experiences of multiple crises and the impacts on resilience and ability to age in place : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Tainui, AnnetteBackground: The incidence of natural hazards and pandemics is increasing. The impact of individual crises on older people’s ability to cope, connect, maintain, and build resilience has been documented. However, there is a dearth of research that considers experiences and accounts across older adulthood and throughout multiple crises. This is crucial considering the impact crises can have on exacerbating age-related physical, mental, and social vulnerabilities as well as predictions of more localised and international events. Older people living in Christchurch New Zealand (Cantabrians) are unique in that, over the last decade, they have experienced both large earthquakes as well as New Zealand’s rigorous pandemic-related lockdowns. Method: Fourteen Cantabrians aged between 72 and 88 years and from diverse socio economic areas took part in open-ended interviews concerning their experience of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic and related lockdowns and how this differed from their experiences of the 7.1 and 6.3 magnitude earthquakes a decade prior. Narrative analysis was used to interpret their stories and provide insights into the meanings they attributed to their experiences ageing in place across time and crises. Findings: Many manifestations of resilience were storied within the three main narratives of ‘Reframe and reaffirm, ‘The virtuous citizen’, and ‘You’re only as old as you feel’. These looked at the ways in which participants: positively reframed their experiences; reaffirmed their key values and self-concept; presented themselves as virtuous, successfully ageing older adults; and didn’t identify as elderly. Conclusions: Representing the experiences of older people living through two very dramatic and different events is a novel approach to understanding capabilities of ageing well. This has implications for understanding the nuanced requirements of emergency communication, preparedness, and management which will be responsive to older New Zealanders’ needs.Item An investigation of the relationship between cultural identity and loneliness in older Māori : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Parata, MakaylaNew Zealand, along with many other countries around the world, is experiencing an ageing population. This has led to research with a focus on the well-being of older adults. A large part of this research is centred around loneliness. In New Zealand-based research, it has been shown Māori are disproportionately affected by negative health outcomes. Despite this, there is a current lack of research with a direct focus on loneliness in older Māori. Internationally, cultural identity (CI) in indigenous and minority populations has been shown to be related to loneliness however there is no current research on the relationship between CI and loneliness in older Māori. This study aimed to investigate this relationship. A secondary analysis of data from the 2020 survey wave of the Health, Work, and Retirement (HWR) study was completed. Participants (N=653) were included in this study if they were aged 65 and over, and indicated their prioritised ethnicity as Māori. Loneliness was measured using the 6-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale and Māori CI was measured using the Multidimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (third revised version). The hypothesised negative relationships between Māori CI and loneliness, and Māori CI and emotional loneliness was not supported however a significant negative correlation was found between Māori CI and social loneliness. Māori CI moderated the relationships between depression and anxiety and outcome (overall and social loneliness). Multiple regression analyses revealed overall and social loneliness were significantly associated with the whanau efficacy CI dimension. None of the other dimensions of the CI measure were related to any type of loneliness. This study recommends further exploration into the relationships revealed. The moderating role of CI should be considered when analysing relationships between antecedents and loneliness. A culturally-sensitive definition of age and new measures of Māori CI should be considered in future research.Item Exploring the demographic, social, and neighbourhood predictors of loneliness among New Zealand’s older adults : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Cannon, TracyIncreased life expectancy has resulted in a larger proportion of older adults in the population. Through multiple changes, older adults’ social networks are shrinking. Consequently, these losses in social connections have resulted in loneliness. Loneliness is a complex and multi-faceted concept, consisting of emotional and social factors. Whilst loneliness has been linked to socio-demographics (age, gender, marital status, and health), few studies have explored the relationship between loneliness and social or neighbourhood influences. The study had three main objectives; to determine how lonely New Zealand’s older adult population is and the extent of emotional loneliness and social loneliness; to assess the socio-demographic predictors of loneliness among New Zealand’s older adult population; and to investigate whether objective measures of social and neighbourhood variables were related to loneliness. The sample was comprised of 4351 New Zealand adults aged 55–92 years old. Data was analysed using both bivariate correlations and logistic regression. The study found loneliness was most strongly related to gender, physical health, mental health, quality of life, housing and neighbourhood satisfaction, and volunteering. The study was limited to subjective evaluations and the impact of Covid-19 on loneliness in older adults has not been addressed. Some of the known predictors of loneliness were supported. The study also identified important social and neighbourhood determinants that have previously been overlooked, opening up avenues for future research into age-friendly environments.Item "Women can be young at any age" : a discourse analysis of the reality show Sisters Who Make Waves : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Health Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Zhang, XiaoxuThe thesis aims to gain insight into the discourses used in the Chinese reality show Sisters Who Make Waves. The show appears to be China’s first show featuring middle-aged female celebrities as participants. These celebrities explicitly seek to expand the discourse of what is possible for older women. In the context of traditional constructs of middle-aged female identities in China, this presents the possibility of a “new identity” for women in this age bracket. Therefore, this thesis wants to understand how the reality show constructed the potential new identity for middle-aged Chinese women, and to examine if the show transferred the coherent information to its claimed purpose. To address these aims, a discourse analysis of a whole season of Sisters Who Make Waves, supported by semiotic analysis of some of the visual content of the show, was performed to 1) identify the discourses constructing age and gender for Chinese women and 2) the linguistic strategies used by these middle-aged celebrities in the show with a focus on the subject positions constructed in their talk, and how the non-celebrity ordinary female audience was invited to understand themselves through these subject positions. I adopted FDA as my main research method to understand how the reality show constructed middle-aged women’s subjectivity. I also applied DP’s discursive devices/tools to examine how the rhetorical strategies used in the show invite the female audience to take the subject positions affectively. Four main discourses are described, theses are, “age is a problem for women”, “age is only a problem if you let it”, “embrace knock-backs as they make you stronger”, and “you can only rely on you”. These discourses reframed age as an advantage for women; middle age could not be a problem if women adopted a young mindset and self-confidence; middle-aged women could be beautiful if they exerted constant effort. These discourses also created ideal subject positions of confident women, young mindset women, forever young women, fighting sheroes, truly brave women, relentlessly positive women, independent women, and family-oriented women. The analysis identified the repeatedly used rhetorical strategies that affectively addressed the female audience to take these subject positions. Women who are invited may feel empowered and devote themselves to meeting the ideals, but they are likely to self-blame for failing to achieve these goals. In the context of stigmatized identities about older women, these “sisters” make waves to provide potentially empowering ways for older women to think about themselves. However, this potential is often negated through individualist discourses that ignore social inequalities.Item Multigenerational caregiving for older people in Bali : combining macro and micro perspectives to understand ageing, family, and caregiving : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Lestari, Made DiahMost of the existing research on family caregiving focuses on the nuclear family, consisting only of parents and children as the research population and women as the primary caregivers. Research on family caregiving needs to take into account demographic and social-cultural contexts. Thus, I sought to explore caregiving and ageing in multigenerational households. As populations continue to age, older people’s needs for special care has become a critical issue that affects families as the primary support of older people and sometimes presents a burden for families in terms of caregiving. While we are witnessing the development of public provisions to support our ageing population, at the same time, the cultural obligation to care for older generations may be reinforced by policies, effectively shifting state responsibilities to the private sphere. The study was framed by a critical gerontology approach to ageing issues from two perspectives: political-moral economy and humanistic gerontology. Critical gerontology provides space for a dialogue between macro and micro perspectives in understanding ageing and family caregiving. The research was conducted in Bali, where most older people live in multigenerational households. At the macro level of caregiving, this study aimed to critically review the regional ageing policies in Indonesia. Using critical discourse analysis, this study explored constructions of older people’s identities in regional ageing policies and found two identity constructions, namely “material ageing” and “cultural ageing”. Such positioning has macro and micro effects on ageing and caregiving practices. At the intersection between macro and micro levels of caregiving, individual narrative interviews were conducted from January until May 2020 with 49 members of 11 multigenerational households to explore the social construction of ageing and family caregiving specific to Balinese culture. Thematic analysis, narrative analysis, and discursive positioning analysis were used to analyse the interview data, exploring: (a) important aspects of local knowledge about multigenerational caregiving reported by participants; (b) the role played by the local narratives in shaping family members’ stories of multigenerational caregiving; and (c) how two dominant ageing discourses in regional ageing policies, “decline” and “successful ageing”, were taken up by older people and their family members in constructing their stories on ageing and family caregiving. I discussed the collective implications of these findings for the micro experiences of ageing and policy and developed a theoretical model of multigenerational caregiving, including its opportunities and challenges by synthesising the findings into a socioecological model. This model provided the basis for an analysis of the intersection between private and public domains of multigenerational caregiving and suggestions for initiatives at the family, community, society, and cultural levels to ensure the sustainability of family caregiving in Bali as well as providing support for the family caregivers.