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Item Dynamic assessment as an early screening tool for identifying New Zealand children at risk of reading difficulty upon school entry : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Bisschoff, SusanThe purpose of this study was to investigate the use of a dynamic assessment as a screening tool for identifying children at risk of reading difficulty. Unlike traditional static assessment, dynamic assessment includes a teaching stage within the assessment and aims to determine what the child can do independently as well as what they have the potential to do when given quality input. At the start of their formal schooling, 165 New Zealand children were administered a dynamic assessment of phonological decoding, along with several static measures of emergent literacy skills. At the end of their first year at school, these same children’s reading abilities were assessed using multiple early reading measures. The results were analysed to determine whether measures administered at the beginning of formal schooling significantly predict future reading ability, and whether there is a significant difference in the ability of the static and dynamic measures to predict future reading difficulty and in their respective predictive classification accuracy. Results indicated that the dynamic assessment of decoding was able to predict future reading difficulty with a high level of accuracy and that it provided superior predictive ability and classification accuracy to that of the static measures of emergent literacy. Furthermore, combining the dynamic and static measures did not improve the overall ability of the dynamic measure alone to predict future reading difficulty. The ease and efficiency of administration of the dynamic assessment, as well as its ability to provide information pertinent to supporting remedial intervention, provided evidence of this measure’s acceptability as an effective universal screening tool. Taken together, the findings indicate that a dynamic assessment of decoding can accurately predict future reading difficulty and that it has the potential to meet the other important characteristics of an effective universal screening tool. This provides support for the use of a dynamic assessment of phonological coding as a universal screening tool for the prediction of reading difficulty at the start of children’s formal schooling.Item A dyslexic-type profile, anxiety and school-related stress in primary aged students : a New Zealand study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Educational Psychology at Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Smith, Heather MayThe acknowledgement and identification of dyslexia are long overdue in New Zealand’s education system, and there is currently little understanding of the prevalence or emotional correlates of dyslexia in Aotearoa. Research offers a range of prevalence rates (3-20%), based on various operationalised definitions. The literature also suggests that a variety of emotional difficulties often co-exist with dyslexia, yet aspects of anxiety specific to research on primary school-aged groups are underrepresented in the literature. This study had two aims. First, this study aimed to identify the prevalence of a dyslexic- type profile (D-TP) in New Zealand for 8-10-year-old students. Secondly, this study explored the difference in anxiety and school-related stress experienced by students with a D-TP, when compared to generic poor readers and students with no significant reading difficulty. It was hypothesised that students with a D-TP will report significantly more anxiety and school-related stress than their peers. A quantitative approach, using Nicholson and Dymock’s (2015) SVR operationalised definition of dyslexia was employed with 54, 8 to 10-year-old students attending six different primary schools in the South Island of New Zealand, to establish a prevalence figure for a D-TP. Two standardised questionnaires (Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale and the School Situational Survey) were administered to all participants, to gauge group differences in anxiety, across six dimensions, and school-related stress, across seven dimensions. The results indicated an 11% prevalence rate for a D-TP, based on the SVR criteria: a figure that appears elevated in comparison to other countries; may only represent moderate to severe dyslexia, and is likely an underestimate of the prevalence of a D-TP. Questionnaire response analyses showed that the D-TP group reported significantly greater anxiety and school-related stress than their peer groups. The study contributes towards an understanding of how the SVR-based methodology may be utilised in New Zealand for 8 to10-year-olds as an assessment for the identification of a dyslexic-type profile. It is also concluded that students with a D-TP experience greater anxiety and school-related stress than poor readers and proficient readers: a feature that not only distinguishes this group but calls for awareness in relation to their well-being.Item Predicting reading recovery selection and outcomes : is it possible? : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education (Literacy) at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) London, AthenaPurpose: Predictive early literacy assessments are useful to identify students who are at risk of reading difficulty. This study investigated the use of six early literacy assessments, administered when students first entered school (Time 1), and in the middle of their first year at school (Time 2), in order to predict which students would be selected for Reading Recovery and to identify the Reading Recovery (RR) outcomes for students who participated in the intervention. Method: Unpublished data from a longitudinal study (Early Literacy Project, Chapman, Arrow, Tunmer, & Braid, 2016) was analysed to find predictive links between assessment results and later reading outcomes, for a cohort of 300 5-year-old children in New Zealand primary schools. Results: It was not possible to predict which students would be selected for Reading Recovery due to the variations in RR selection processes. It was found that children who participated in RR were more likely to be referred on for further support the lower their phonological awareness scores were. It was also found that if a child scored 20 points or less, in a combination of Time 1 assessments (letter names, letter sounds and three measures of phonological awareness), they were likely to have a body of literacy abilities that meant they would be working at least a year below the National Standard by the end of their second year at school. Implications: The findings indicate that standardising the selection of students for RR may mean students with the lowest literacy attainment all get support. In addition, early literacy assessments, including measures of phonological awareness, should be administered early in a child’s schooling and those identified as being at risk of reading difficulty should receive literacy support without delay. Addressing students’ low levels of phonological awareness in the first year of schooling may lead to better outcomes for students who participate in RR. Keywords: phonological awareness, Reading Recovery, early literacy assessment, letter names, letter sounds, New Zealand, timing of assessment, vocabularyItem E-asTTle as a catalyst for change : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Education - Teaching and Learning at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2016) Carnegie-Harding, SusanThis thesis studies the introduction and use of the formative assessment tool e-asTTle (Assessment for Teaching and Learning) in a low decile, high Māori school and the impact it has on teacher practice and student achievement. The project’s aim was to identify if teachers, through using the data from the tool, moved to an evidence based teaching model which supported increased student achievement in reading and mathematics. Identifying a major shift in teaching practice and corresponding rise in student success would support the assertion unpinning the study, that e-asTTle is a catalyst for change. The data for this study was gathered during the first quarter of the school year. Teachers of Year 7, 8 and 9 students volunteered to complete a confidential online survey. The focus of the survey was to identify previous and current assessment practices, changes to practice and prompted teachers to reflect on the usefulness of data in supporting their teaching practice. Beginning of the year and mid-year student assessment score data in reading and mathematics was gathered and compared to identify shifts in achievement of each year group. These shifts were then compared to e-asTTle nationally expected shifts to identify the level of progress. The results suggest that the introduction of the e-asTTle tool into the school supported teachers to change to formative assessment, evidence-based teaching practice. This change had a positive effect on student achievement with accelerated progress occurring in reading and mathematics. However, the results also identified a much lower level of progress for Year 7 students, which is consistent with trends identified in national research data on the transitioning of students between primary and secondary schools. Based on this data a recommendation was made to study the transitioning of students between the local primary schools and the study school, and the impact it may be having on learning and achievement, particularly in mathematics. Should the results of the study support it, a programme could be put into place that met identified student needs and supported their successful integration into the school. Although evidence of accelerated progress met the study’s brief, the continued low level of achievement of the students in reading compared not just to all schools but to other decile one, high Māori roll schools, is a concern that needs to be addressed.Item An exploratory comparison of the inferential ability of EFL and ESL students : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Management at Massey University(Massey University, 2003) Zhang, WeidongThe ability to access and interpret information is a very important component in generating knowledge. However, people are not always able to discover information, quickly evaluate the importance of the information and access it (Tichenor, Donohue & Olien, 1970; Chatman, 1991; Sligo & Williams, 2002). Especially in a tertiary academic setting, the ability to access information and integrate information from various sources to infer what is not overtly stated in a text is an essential skill during the reading process (Kintsch, 1994; Barnes, Dennis, & Haefele-Kalvaitis, 1996; Cain, Oakhill, Barnes, & Bryant, 2001). Because of differences among people's educational background, existing pools of knowledge and communication abilities, the ability to access information will affect their inferential ability in the reading process (Alexander, 1994; Ericsson, 1996; Mckoon & Ratcliff, 1992). Although inferential ability is to be of consequence for academic functioning, very little research has been done on the comparison of inferential ability among students with English as their first language and those with English as their second language. This study examines the relative extent of text inferential ability among students with English as a first language (EFL) and students to whom English is a second language (ESL), employing the knowledge gap hypothesis, and assesses its implications. Using a procedure to assess inferential ability, this thesis compares the differences in inferential ability demonstrated by EFL and ESL students, employing cloze tests. This study found that EFL students' performance on the inferential ability and cloze item completion task is significantly better than that of their ESL counterparts via the first two scoring methods (Methods A and B). However, the inferential ability of ESL students is almost as good as their EFL counterparts when assessed by the third scoring method (Method C). The research findings suggest that Sligo and Williams (2002) are right in terming the knowledge gap as an amalgam of knowledge, comprehension and inference (p.6). Subsidiary analyses of the source of inference failures revealed different underlying sources of difficulty for both EFL and ESL students. The results of the research provide insights into the nature of gaps in accessing information and inference making. Education in a tertiary institution may or may not reduce gaps. Though both EFL and ESL students improved from their original starting level, the gaps of inferential ability between EFL and ESL students in the two tests, especially via Methods A and B, widened. In the second test, both EFL and ESL students made progress in inferential ability. Yet there still remained a gap between the two groups of students in test two as the knowledge rich individuals improved at a similar rate as the knowledge poor. The present study supports the contention of Sligo and Williams (2002) that there is an unexamined area at the heart of the knowledge gap hypothesis literature. The findings of the present study suggest the correctness of the proposal by Sligo and Williams (2002) that what knowledge gap hypothesis researchers call knowledge gaps should in fact be better described as some amalgam of gaps in knowledge, and/or inferential ability. This is the most significant finding of the present research.Item The preceptor's role in student evaluation : an investigation : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Nursing at Massey University(Massey University, 2000) Marshall, Dianne ClareThe evaluation of nursing students' clinical learning in the preceptorship model of clinical teaching is a shared responsibility between the lecturer and the preceptor in the educational institution where this research took place. The purpose of the study is to explore the preceptor's role in student evaluation. This thesis uses a comparative descriptive design to investigate the similarities and differences between lecturers' and preceptors' valuing of specific clinical evaluation criteria as set out in the clinical evaluation tool. The lecturers' and preceptors' perceptions of the clarity of the clinical evaluation tool are also explored using a qualitative approach. A sample of ten lecturers and seventy preceptors who provide clinical teaching to second year undergraduate nursing students in acute care settings, was drawn to compare if the clinical evaluation criteria were valued differently between the groups. A questionnaire was developed using the clinical evaluation tool used by the educational institution. Data analysis demonstrated more similarities than differences between the criteria selected as most critically important by lecturers and preceptors. Differences were demonstrated on four criteria which were rated more highly by lecturers than preceptors. This suggested that preceptors' evaluations of students' clinical practice pertaining to those criteria would differ from lecturers' expectations of students' practice. A quasi-statistical content analysis of open-ended questions explored lecturers' and preceptors' perceptions of the clarity of the clinical evaluation tool. The influence of preceptors' educational level on the valuing of specific criteria was also explored and was shown to have most influence on preceptors' valuing of cultural safety. Factors which might explain these findings are identified and discussed, namely socialisation of preceptors to work-based values; variability of exposure to the education environment for preceptors; difficulty defining clinical competence and preceptors' level of experience. The study endorses preceptors' involvement in clinical evaluation and highlights future directions for research and development of the preceptor role.Item An analysis of year 8 poor comprehenders' responses to the PAT Reading Comprehension test : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Literacy Education at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2014) Corkery, FrancesDespite years of literacy learning, a group of students continue to struggle with reading in their final year at primary school. Many of these students show adequate decoding skills but perform poorly on comprehension tasks. This study reports on the results of a study into the linguistic skills and cognitive processes of a group of thirty one poor comprehenders and twelve proficient comprehenders in Year 8. An analysis of the poor comprehender group found issues with some foundation language skills persist beyond the junior levels of primary school. Syntactic and morphological awareness were found to be less developed in the poor comprehender group when compared with their more skilled peers, while phonological knowledge was not implicated in reading difficulties. The poor comprehenders were also asked to retrospectively consider their incorrect question responses on the Progressive Achievement Test of Comprehension (PATC) in an effort to understand the reasons behind their choices and further find where breakdowns in comprehension were occurring. The PATC is widely used in New Zealand primary schools and measures silent reading comprehension using a multiple choice format. Tests conducted silently do not allow the processes of comprehension to be revealed, rather they can only tell us if understanding was successful of not. The results of this retrospective analysis highlighted several key areas of difficulty in the poor comprehender group including inferencing, vocabulary knowledge and the use of prior knowledge. Additionally, the use of poor test-taking strategies was highlighted. These included students using a key word matching ‘search and destroy’ technique to find answers, and employing timesaving measures to avoid a complete reading of the text. Finally an analysis of the questions in the PATC was undertaken to find if certain types proved more challenging for students. Results showed individual questions proved difficult to answer due to their high cognitive demands, but no question type was more difficult to answer. The study indicates the need for assessments to reflect the cognitive aspects of reading comprehension and to include foundation skills until the Year 8 level. In addition to teaching comprehension strategies and vocabulary, teachers need to focus on improving the test-taking skills of students.Item Bilingual literacy and academic success among Samoan born students in a New Zealand secondary school : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masterate in Education at Massey University(Massey University, 1995) Brown, Gavin T LThis thesis is a study of bilingual students' literacy abilities and practices in a secondary school setting. Informed by Jim Cummins' writings on bilingual students' achievement in schools and by J. W. Oller's theories on language measurement, this project addresses the nature of First language reading behaviour of Samoan bilingual students in English immersion education in New Zealand. In addition, the Cummins' (Cummins, et. al. 1984) hypothesis that age 12 is the optimal age to transfer language of education and country is tested. Research took place with Samoan born students (n=29) enrolled at the researcher's place of employment. The reading ability of students in Samoan and in English is tested through exact word scoring of a 7th word mechanical deletion cloze task, using a translated narrative text at the 12 year reading age. School records of academic achievement from the half year point are included for comparison with literacy achievement. These data were analysed with demographic details obtained from a student questionnaire. The questionnaire also provided descriptions of student reading behaviour in Samoan. Similar data is obtained from a group of NZ born Samoans (n=20) for comparison and referencing. Reading behaviour of these students gives a high importance for Samoan language reading, yet little actual time is spent reading in that language. Both groups of students on average performed better on English cloze tests than Samoan. The NZ born students read better in English and worse in Samoan than their immigrant counterparts. The tested hypothesis is only partially supported by the research findings. Predictions of CALP (reading) ability generated by Cummins' hypothesis are seen to a significant level,. However, none of the variables used correlated with academic achievement. Furthermore, in contrast to Cummins' predictions, a strong inverse correlation between length of residence and reading ability in the two languages is found. In other words, the longer Samoan born students are in one of the countries the better their ability in the language of that country and the weaker their ability in the other language. No such significant correlations were found among NZ born students. Alternate theoretical explanations for the results are offered using concepts from the fields of sociology of education and socio-historic psychology. Appendices include test materials, questionnaire and interview forms. A bibliography of over 380 references is included.Item Crystallised and fluid ability change across age and a psychometric evaluation of the GRT2 : a cross-sectional analysis :a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2011) McInnes, Andrew JamesThis paper critically evaluated many psychometric properties of the General Reasoning Test (GRT2) and examined age changes in Crystallised and Fluid ability across the 16- to 58-year age range, as represented by the Verbal and Abstract GRT2 scales, respectively. Respondent data came from a large New Zealand-based archived group (N=5075) of individuals whom had completed the assessment as a component of general-level pre-employment information gathering. The psychometric evaluation found the GRT2 to possess adequate internal consistency, and a sub-adequate item-difficulty distribution, for both the Abstract and Verbal scales. A cross-sectional analysis of ability suggested a significant linear decline in Fluid intelligence and non-significant change in Crystallised intelligence, across age. Furthermore, heterogeneity of Fluid ability variance appeared to increase significantly across age, whereas Crystallised ability variance did not. Results were interpreted in the context of Horn’s theory, especially with the distinction between vulnerable and maintained abilities. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.