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Item An economic analysis of a robotic harvest technology in New Zealand fresh apple industry : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agribusiness, Massey University School of Agriculture and Environment, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2020) Ghahremani, MortezaThe New Zealand apple industry is predominately an export-oriented industry relying on manual labour throughout the year. In recent years, however, labour shortages for harvesting have been jeopardising its competitiveness and profitability. Temporary immigration labour programs, such as the Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) program have not been able to solve the labour shortages, urging the industry to consider use of harvesting automation, i.e. robotic technology, as a solution. Harvesting robots are still in commercial trial stage and no studies have assessed the economic feasibility of such technology. The present study for the first time develops a bio-economic model to analyse the investment decision for adopting harvesting robots compared to available alternatives, i.e. platform and manual harvesting systems, using net present value (NPV) as the method of analysis; for newly established single-, bi-, and multi-varietal orchards across different orchard sizes, and three apple varieties (Envy, Jazz, and Royal Gala); and implications of orchard canopy transition and associated sensitivities are considered. The results of the analysis identified fruit value and yield as the key drivers for the adoption of harvesting automation. For relatively low value and or yielding varieties such as Jazz or Royal Gala, robots are less profitable in single-varietal orchard compared to bi-varietal orchard planted with relatively low value and yielding varieties. In a multi-varietal orchard, a relatively high value and high yield variety, such as Envy, is crucial to compensate for the costs incurred for harvesting other varieties using robots or platforms. The greatest potential benefit of utilising harvesting robots was reducing pickers required by an average of 54% for Envy and 48% for each of Jazz and Royal Gala across all orchard sizes compared to manual harvesting; and 7% in average for each of Envy, Jazz, and Royal Gala across all orchard sizes compared to platform harvesting system. This study also identified the break-even price for a robotic harvester in a single-varietal orchard, showed that the break-even prices exceeded the assumed price of the robot, and are highly variable depending on the varietal value and yield, where Envy as a relatively higher value and yielding variety returns a break-even price of $2.92 million compared to relatively lower value and yielding varieties, Jazz with $674,895, and Royal Gala with $689,608. Sensitivity analyses showed that both harvesting speed and efficiency are key parameters in the modelled orchard and positively affected the net returns of the investment and must be considered by researchers and manufacturers. However, for developers and potential adopters of robots, it should be more important that robots operate faster, but not necessarily as more efficient in order to generate a high return while substituting the highest number of pickers and leaving less unharvested fruit on trees in the limited harvesting window. Reducing robot price by 12% and 42% can generate an equivalent level of profit similar to manual or platform harvesting, respectively. Increases in labour wages, and decreases in labour availability and efficiency adversely affected the NPV and profitability outlook of the investment, but NPV was more affected by the decreases in labour efficiency and availability than wage increases. This research has important science and policy implications for policy makers, academics, growers, engineers, and manufacturers. From an economic perspective, for late adopters or those growers who may not be financially able to invest in robots or may be uncertain about their performance, platform harvesting system can be utilised as an alternative solution that is commercially available until robotic harvesting technology improves or becomes more affordable, and commercially available. Alternatively, it may be possible for these orchardists to benefit from utilising the robotic harvester in the form of a co-operative or contract-harvesting business model to avoid the capital costs associated with purchasing and operating the robots. Besides the economic factors, robotic harvesters have the potential to be considered as a solution for non-economic factors such as food safety problems. This is more apparent in the post-Covid-19 pandemic era, which has not only made it more difficult for growers to source their required workers due to border closures, but also has led consumers to be more cautious about food safety when they make purchase decisions and prefer to have their fresh fruit touchless from farm to plate. This may not be a problem for packhouses as most are automated, but it may be an issue for harvesting operations, because pickers have to pick apples by hand. Even though robots cannot be the only option for growers to rely on for the foreseeable future as they are not commercially available, in the current situation robot harvesting may be the most ideal solution.Item Deregulation or re-regulation : grower constructions of risks that arise from regulatory change in the New Zealand pipfruit industry : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Development Studies, School of Global Studies at Massey University(Massey University, 2001) Bird, Louis JosephThis thesis seeks to combine two political economy of food perspectives stemming from food regimes analysis and concepts of food networks for the purpose of identifying and examining grower constructions of risks arising from regulatory change in the New Zealand pipfruit industry. While the food regimes framework has received some criticism from the post-structuralist camp, it is difficult to conceive how a clear understanding of agri-food networks in New Zealand, particularly post-1984, could be proposed without focusing on the momentous political and economic events associated with the structural adjustment experiment which fundamentally changed the productive, investment, economic and socio-political landscapes. Food regimes analysis, with its focus on investment axes and comparative trends in global food restructuring, represents a powerful theoretical tool in situating historical and current industry challenges and structural conditions. The research uses focus groups as the primary participatory research vehicle and through this has identified grower defined, risk matrices. These matrices have been built in four separate pipfruit growing regions. Each prioritises risk events in terms of likelihood of occurrence and seriousness of consequence, in the orchard business enterprise context. Regionally specific risk construction and definition can assist in the prediction, and analysis, of the effects of deregulation (re-regulation), and influence future development trajectories for the New Zealand pipfruit industry and the regional communities where the industry is a major economic driver. Key Words: food regimes; food networks; qualitative method; focus group; risk; construction.Item Factors that influence grower adoption and implementation of the ENZA Integrated Fruit Production programme : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Applied Science in Agriculture - Horticulture Systems and Management at Massey University(Massey University, 1999) Stiefel, HeidiTo maintain marker access to the key pipfruit export markets of Europe and the UK ENZAFRUIT New Zealand LTD has set a target of 100 percent grower adoption of the ENZA Integrated Fruit Production programme (ENZA-IFP) by the year 2001. In 1996 eighty eight growers had adopted the programme out of a total of 1650 growers nationally, hence the adoption rate required to met this target is very steep. However, little is known about New Zealand growers' attitudes towards the ENZA-IFP programme, or the factors that may influence the programme's adoption. Interviews of randomly selected IFP and non-IFP growers were held in Hawke's Bay and Nelson during August 1997. The purpose of the interviews was to determine the factors that influence the adoption of the ENZA-IFP programme, identify differences between IFP and non IFP growers, and identify themes of technology transfer methods that may encourage grower adoption of the ENZA-IFP programme. The results of the IFP and non-IFP case study research were cross compared, then compared and contrasted with the factors identified in the reviewed literature. The key reasons the IFP growers had adopted the ENZA-IFP programme were for philosophical and environmental factors. Market access was also a key motivating factor. Financial factors, perceived risk, and poor communication were the key factors hindering adoption tor the non-IFP growers. The main financial factors were loss of the USA supply programme incentive and a lack of financial incentives to adopt IFP. Perceived risk was in the form of a perceived increase in pest and disease damage and resulting financial loss. To reach ENZA's target of 100 percent grower adoption by 2001, growers need both clear guidelines on how this is going to be met and financial incentives over the transition period to motivate adoption. IFP technologies that bring direct financial benefits to growers, have a participatory technology transfer system, have a low level of complexity and perceived risk, and fit with a growers current production system and resources are likely to be adopted more readily. Keywords: Integrated Fruit Production, Adoption, ImplementationItem Factors influencing the susceptibility of apples to bruising : this thesis is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Horticultural Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 1997) Mowatt, Craig Meffan; Mowatt, Craig MeffanFinancial returns to New Zealand orchardists could be increased if bruise damage to apples and its visual consequences were reduced. Comprehension of the variability of susceptibility to the bruising of apples associated with either preharvest, harvest or postharvest influences is fundamental to reducing bruise damage. Standard impacts to apples have been generated in many ways and bruise severity has generally been represented as bruise volume per unit energy. In this study bruise severity was represented by a) the diameter of a bruise generated by a sphere of mass and radius of curvature similar to that of apples and whose impact energy (0.32 J) was similar to apple-apple collisions that occurred during grading or b) the damage that apples incurred by grading in a standard manner. Bruise colour was also measured and visual differences between dark and light brown 'Granny Smith' bruised tissue were associated with a 5° difference in hue angle, as measured by a Minolta chromameter. In 1990 from a survey of 'Granny Smith' orchards it was determined that the range in bruise diameter of individual fruit was 17% (fruit mass range; 0.157-0.207 kg) and in 1991 was 63% (fruit mass range; 0.098-0.278 kg). The between-season difference in mean bruise diameter was 2.8%. Over the two years it was found that bruise diameter of fruit from orchards producing either the most or least bruise susceptible fruit differed by an average of 6.5%. In 1991 bruise diameter generated from a standard impact was related to grader damage (R2 = 0.49) and the slope of this relationship indicated that small increases in bruise diameter equated to large increases in grader damage. In both years the most bruise susceptible fruit had higher levels of tissue phosphorus, calcium and nitrogen than least susceptible fruit. In one year of the survey bruise diameter was positively related to apple calcium content and apple mass with grader damage positively related to phosphorus content. In a within-orchard study between-tree variation in bruise diameter of 'Royal Gala' (11%) exceeded that of 'Granny Smith' (4%). Bruise diameter of least bruise susceptible fruit was more consistently related to starch index, soluble solids, fruit mass and firmness than bruise diameter of the most susceptible fruit. Harvesting 'Granny Smith' and 'Royal Gala' early rather than later in the season resulted in bruise diameter reductions of 5% and 21% respectively. Within-tree position of apples did not consistently influence susceptibility to bruising in either variety. Foliar sprays of calcium (CaCl2) and phosphorus (H3PO4) did not influence fruit mineral contents or susceptibility to bruising. Apples from non-irrigated "Braeburn" trees had smaller bruise diameters (6%), less calcium and tended to have more dry matter than apples from normally irrigated trees. 'Golden Delicious' apples harvested later in the day were less susceptible to bruise damage (7.3%) than those harvested early in the morning; elevated temperatures and reduced water status were identified as causative factors. As temperature increased from 0 to 20°C susceptibility to bruising showed a non-linear reduction. Bruise diameter and grader damage reduced 5% and 24% respectively when 'Granny Smith' apples were bruised at 20°C rather than when bruised at 0°C. If 'Royal Gala' were cooled to 2°C and then rewarmed to 20°C they sustained 36% less grader damage than if graded immediately after harvest. Useful reductions in grader damage (25%) were achieved by holding freshly harvested 'Royal Gala' at ambient temperatures for one day before grading. Storing the bruise susceptible cultivar 'Splendour' apples for 54 h at 20°C before bruising resulted in a 9% reduction in bruise diameter. A 24 h delay in pre-cooling of 'Royal Gala' was associated with a 0.5% weight loss and a 3% reduction in bruise diameter; delays of more than 24 h before pre-cooling were associated with enhanced ripening and greater weight loss but no measurable change in susceptibility to bruising. In the 1991 survey, there were large between-orchard differences in hue angle of bruised 'Granny Smith' apple tissue (16°) and light brown bruise tissue was associated with higher fruit nitrogen content (R2 = 0.55). Between-tree differences in hue angle of bruised tissue from 'Royal Gala' apples were large (15°) but with 'Granny Smith' were insignificant. Differences in bruised tissue colour due to enhanced maturity or within-tree position in both cultivars were not consistent. Cool storing 'Splendour' for 414 h before bruising appeared to increase bruise lightness.Item Computerised decision support for IPM in New Zealand apple orchards : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 1997) Stewart, Terrence Mark; Stewart, Terrence MarkNew Zealand apple growers face a dilemma. Export fruit must be of the highest possible quality and free from quarantine pests, but contain increasingly fewer pesticides in lower amounts. The objective of this study was to define and develop decision support tools that may assist in the improved timing and/or reduction of pesticide usage. Fifty randomly selected growers were interviewed in 1992 to determine their pest and disease problems, use of existing IPM methodology and requirements for an improved decision support service. The survey found more then 20% of growers had difficulties with common pests and diseases and many used IPM techniques. Most growers perceived a problem with pesticide residues and pest and disease resistance; they also expected to reduce pesticide usage and better target applications through improved technology in the future. Decision-support using fax and computer technology appeared feasible, subject to support from their advisers. In 1993, twenty-seven Hawkes Bay apple pest and disease control "advisers" were interviewed to determine their role in growers' pest and disease spray decision-making. Horticultural merchant representatives believed they were the main spray decision-maker for 40% of growers, and half of the latter expected the horticultural merchant representatives to know more about the problems in the orchard than they did. Other advisers played an important role in strategic pest and disease advice to the industry. Introducing more complex spray-saving techniques, or taking full advantage of those that already exist, would require many growers either to upskill themselves, or employ consultants to manage their orchards. Basic pest and disease identification and biology, together with knowledge of pesticides were regarded as being essential to manage pests and diseases successfully. Nutritional problems and resistance development were two particular areas where growers required more knowledge. Using the survey findings, a problem tree was created focussing on the question "Was pesticide use excessive in New Zealand apple orchards?". This conceptual model showed that pesticide use was excessive, and better grower education and training may partly alleviate the problem. Using the data from the surveys, two computerised training tools were defined and developed to assist with this solution viz SPRAYCHECK and DIAGNOSIS. SPRAYCHECK was developed to analyse grower black spot fungicide spray programs during the period of primary inoculum release. Using a series of models, incorporating weather data, infection periods and information from growers' spray diaries, grower black spot control decision-making was analysed and a recommended spray schedule for the season in question provided. Model construction revealed a lack of quantitative information on fungicide behaviour and the levels required to fully protect against black spot on apple foliage. A sensitivity analysis showed the rate of cover decay was very important in determining the number of fungicides required to fully protect a crop. DIAGNOSIS is a training aid for teaching pest and disease diagnosis skills to crop protection trainees. This program simulates field and laboratory scenarios, in which trainees must actively seek clues and interpret observations on the cause of plant problems, in apples or other crops. Once trainees have recorded their diagnosis, justification and recommendations for action, they receive an automatic de-briefing on their problem-solving approach. Trainee input is recorded to disk for later tutor assessment. Two decision-support tools were defined, developed and validated. One has been commercialised and the models in the other are likely to be used in an existing Decision Support System. During this exercise, knowledge was gained regarding the New Zealand apple industry in Hawkes Bay, in particular the close relationship between the growers, and horticultural merchant field representatives and their advisers. This relationship could either help or hinder IPM and improved decision support in the futureItem Energy in New Zealand apple production : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Doctor of Philosophy in Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2010) Frater, Thomas GregoryAgriculture is the largest contributor to the New Zealand economy, and apple (Malus sp.) production is a significant component of that. Apples are exported from New Zealand to global markets, including Asia, the UK, Europe and North America. New Zealand prides itself on a ‘clean green’ image, and its agricultural industry, while already recognized as highly efficient, has sought to move towards sustainability. To further understand the sustainability of its production systems, the New Zealand apple industry sponsored a study to measure energy inputs into those systems. Global food supply chains impinge on a broad range of issues, and have attracted academic commentary from a range of academic disciplines, ranging from the sciences and social sciences to the humanities. This inter-disciplinary study was structured as a scientific investigation of energy inputs into New Zealand farm level and post-harvest apple production (to destination port), with a parallel examination of the research process from a philosophical and systemic frame of reference. The author examined boundary judgments and presuppositions, drawing from the philosophical concept of tacit knowledge. The research process was structured so that outputs might contribute to further studies following the life cycle assessment (LCA) framework. Aspects of LCA methodology were therefore examined, particularly the construction of sustainability indicators. The most significant contributions to the New Zealand apple production supply chain were found to be shipping (4.24 MJ kg-1), packaging (1.46 MJ kg-1), followed by farm processes (1.45 MJ kg-1) and post harvest processes (0.51 MJ kg-1). The total system inputs were 7.7 MJ kg-1. The philosophical and systemic inquiry found that LCA methodology should take further account of normativistic elements to sustain the claim of being an holistic or systemic methodology. The meaning of sustainability indicators was found to be materially affected by tacit knowledge imbedded in apparently value-free metrics, and further affected by tacit assumptions imbedded in the LCA methodology itself. An approach (total life cycle intervention) was proposed, incorporating aspects of soft-systems thinking, taking account of critical system heuristics (CSH), and systemic intervention approaches.Item Total quality management in the New Zealand pipfruit industry : an exploratory study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Quality Systems at Massey University, Palmerston North, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2010) Doevendans, HansOver the years, quality processes developed by guilds were followed by quality endinspections, quality control methods, quality assurance methods and Total Quality Management (TQM) systems. Quality Management has developed into a distinct direction in management thinking. There is substantial evidence that excellent companies use many elements of the Total Quality Management domain. This document aims to explore several concepts and developments in TQM as they may apply to- and be applied in the NZ pipfruit industry. It further aims to identify areas within the industry where identified TQM principles should be considered as valuable and consolidates these into a number of recommendations. Recommendations are general in nature due to the limitations attached to this study. The difference between quality management for manufacturing and service industries is discussed. Fundamental principles are highlighted for exploration of application in the pipfruit industry. There is practically no quality management literature about the pipfruit industry. The industry is different in that it deals with ‘live’ product and seasonal activity. The New Zealand pipfruit industry has been exposed to a number of volatile socio-economic changes in the last 15 years. The shape in which the industry emerged from these changes has not facilitated development of quality management processes. A number of stakeholders are interviewed to understand what TQM aspects they use in the running of their organisations. Some of these represent more than one activity type as they are ‘vertically integrated’. An additional survey of a wider group of stakeholders adds to understanding of TQM elements used in the pipfruit industry. Results indicate that there is some understanding of TQM principles but that organisations typically have short-term results focus rather than strategic quality positions. The seasonality of the industry hinders investment into employees, particularly seasonal employees. Cross-functional thinking, continuous improvement and participative company culture are not dominant features in the industry. The industry can find ways to improve its position by adopting a different fundamental thinking. Recommendations are made concerning strategy, people and culture. An integrated model is introduced in an attempt to present structure to the quality workings within the industry. This study shows that more work must be done to understand how TQM principles can be further developed to assist the NZ pipfruit industry and seasonal primary horticultural industries. Much benefit can be gained from advanced studies into the quality management within the pipfruit industry and horticultural seasonal industries.