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The lucky and unlucky daughter: Gender, land inheritance and agrarian change in Ratanakiri, Cambodia
(John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2024-04-01) Beban A; Bourke Martignoni J
In many agrarian societies, women come to own land, and people secure care in old age through land inheritance. The social norms guiding inheritance shape gendered, generational and class-based relations of power in rural areas, and intra-family land rights can be lost when inheritance norms shift. In Cambodia's northeastern Ratanakiri province, rapid agrarian change over the past decade—including the expansion of land grabs, cash cropping and Khmer in-migration—is transforming decision-making around inheritance. Based on a large sample of qualitative interviews and focus groups carried out in 2016 and 2020 with Indigenous and Khmer communities, we focus on the ways in which intergenerational and gendered obligations of care are being reconfigured as land scarcity and inequalities within rural areas become more pronounced. We argue that social norms around land inheritance are in flux, with a proliferation of diverse practices emerging including a shift from matrilineal to bilateral inheritance amongst some Indigenous families, the deferment of marriage and inheritance decisions due to a lack of land and parents taking on debt to buy land and secure care in older age. These changes are reconfiguring gendered and generational identities in relation to land and have potentially negative consequences for land-poor families, in particular, for poor Indigenous women. These changes are symptoms of a larger ‘crisis of care’ in rural communities.
Disorientations: The Political Ecology of “Displacing” Floating Communities from Cambodia's Tonle Sap Lake
(Wiley, 2024-02-13) Chann S; Beban A; Flaim A; Gorman T; Vouch LL
In this article, we extend a theory of disorientations to reveal how attempts to fix and control both water and people are disrupting once-fluid relationships between the Tonle Sap Lake and communities who have lived with-on the lake for generations. Using ethnographic and participatory mapping methods, we examine the socio-ecological dynamics that preceded and succeeded in the forced relocation of three floating communities in 2018. We argue that communities’ experiences challenge land-centric and event-centric understandings of displacement that pathologise fluid lifeways and fail to account for the materiality of water that has shaped floating villages’ multi-generational relationships with their wetland ecology. We develop the concept of disorientations to illuminate villagers’ experiences of relocation within a collapsing aquatic ecosystem—a collapse catalysed by state efforts to impose fixity on both hydrological flow and community mobility. The lens of disorientations invites displacement debates to consider materialities of place—whether pulsing water or living, shifting soils.
Surviving cassava: smallholder farmer strategies for coping with market volatility in Cambodia
(Taylor and Francis Group, 2023-03-15) Beban A; Gironde C
Cassava has become a ‘must have’ crop for many Cambodian smallholders; yet, the market is volatile and yields are uneven. Drawing on long-term fieldwork in Kampong Thom and Ratanakiri provinces, we analyse how farmers cope with volatility. We argue that multiple pathways have emerged: some farmers have ceased producing cassava; some have expanded production; while most farmers engage in ‘ambivalent repeasantisation’, striving to gain autonomy from market fluctuations through the survival work of everyday gendered labour, including investing family and community labour into cassava, shifting back to food crops, managing debt, and creating relationships with traders, while also imagining a life beyond cassava. Uneven fortunes with cassava contribute to land redistribution, deepening class, gender and ethnic divides. The case of smallholder cassava pathways in Cambodia shows us that agrarian transition is neither linear nor unidimensional, and dynamics of ‘depeasantisation’, ‘repeasantisation’, and ‘intensification’ through crop booms cannot be assumed a priori.
“Now the Forest Is Over”: Transforming the Commons and Remaking Gender in Cambodia's Uplands
(Frontiers Media S.A, 2021-10) Beban A; Bourke Martignoni J
Communal lands and natural resources in rural Cambodia have transformed over the past 30 years as the country attempts to transition from conflict to liberal democracy and integrates into global agricultural value chains. We find that gender relations are changing as a result of land privatization and the ensuing social and ecological crises of production and reproduction. The forest has become a space for the articulation of new masculinities modulated through class and racialised power, while women are increasingly relegated to the private space of the home and village, negotiating expectations that they perform care, farming and food provisioning work while juggling household debt. We ground our argument in a large sample of qualitative interviews conducted between 2016 and 2020 in the upland provinces of Kampong Thom, Kratie and Ratanakiri that provide narrative accounts of the transformation of common forest and grazing lands, logging livelihoods and food provisioning practices. Using a feminist political ecology perspective, we highlight the contradictory processes of enclosure of the commons, which operate simultaneously as sites of violence, resistance, adaptation and continuity.
Linking smallholder producers to high-value markets through producer cooperatives : a case study of vegetable producer cooperatives in Cambodia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriCommerce at Massey University, School of Agriculture and Environment, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2019) Tray, Bunthan
The emergence of supermarkets and high-value markets (HVMs) in developing countries has implications for producers and whole agri-food markets. To bring benefits of this development to smallholder producers, governments and development agencies have paid great attention to the essential roles of producer cooperatives (PCs). Many studies show that PCs succeeded in linking producers to HVMs, but numerous cases indicated that PCs did not achieve their goal. Modern retail markets and supermarkets have grown in Cambodia, but vegetable growers were unlikely to gain benefits from this HVMs. PCs play critical roles in assisting smallholder producers in strengthening market competition, but only a very few PCs achieved their business goals. The purpose of this research is 1) to examine the role of producer cooperatives (PCs) in linking vegetable producers to (HVMs) and 2) analyse the factors affecting successful participation in (HVMs). This study applied mixed research methods by integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches to examine vegetable value chains, the roles of PCs, and factor affecting smallholder producers’ participation in HVMs. With this study, the primary data was collected by using a face-to-face interview with PCs’ managers and a survey interview with PCs’ members. This study used Qualitative Data Analysis, descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression, chi-square test, and independent samples T-Test to address research objectives. The research indicated that the vegetable value chain in Cambodia consisted of two main marketing channels, such as traditional markets (TMs) and high-value markets (HVMs). The value chain of TMs was long and complicated with a number of chain actors, while the value chain of HVMs was short and high integration of the intermediaries. The research suggested that the value chain of HVMs provided a better price for producers, but volume supplied to supermarkets remains relatively small. In terms of the roles of PCs, all selected PCs provided agricultural input support, financial support, extension services, and market support to their members. However, PC-HVMs focused on both production and markets, while PC-TMs paid great attention to production. Based on these results, governments, and development agencies, and PCs should assist producers in both production technologies and business skills. The study examined factors that influenced smallholder producer groups’ participation in HVMs. The results indicate that the majority of respondents considered external factors, such as political, economic, social, environmental, and technological factors, as important factors affecting their participation in HVMs. This study suggested that wide ranges of supports provided to producers may help them to participate in HVMs. However, there is a need for favourite supporting policies and a macroeconomic environment from the government in the country. These could open up broader market opportunities for smallholder vegetable producers. The binary logistic regression results indicate that some internal factors, such as a vegetable farming experience, volume of vegetables, and average vegetable prices had a statistical significance with a positive sign. However, a vegetable farm size showed a negative sign.
Some diagnostic techniques for small area estimation : with applications to poverty mapping : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Statistics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2019) Livingston, Alison
Small area estimation (SAE) techniques borrow strength via auxiliary variables to provide reliable estimates at ﬁner geographical levels. An important application is poverty mapping, whereby aid organisations distribute millions of dollars every year based on small area estimates of poverty measures. Therefore diagnostics become an important tool to ensure estimates are reliable and funding is distributed to the most impoverished communities. Small area models can be large and complex, however even the most complex models can be of little use if they do not have predictive power at the small area level. This motivated a variable importance measure for SAE that considers each auxiliary variable’s ability to explain the variation in the dependent variable, as well as its ability to distinguish between the relative levels in the small areas. A core question addressed is how candidate survey-based models might be simpliﬁed without losing accuracy or introducing bias in the small area estimates. When a small area estimate appears to be biased or unusual, it is important to investigate and if necessary remedy the situation. A diagnostic is proposed that quantiﬁes the relative effect of each variable, allowing identiﬁcation of any variables within an area that have a larger than expected inﬂuence on the small area estimate for that area. This highlights possible errors which need to be checked and if necessary corrected. Additionally in SAE, it is essential that the estimates are at an acceptable level of precision in order to be useful. A measure is proposed that takes the ratio of the variability in the small areas to the uncertainty of the small area estimates. This measure is then used to assist in determining the minimum level of precision needed in order to maintain meaningful estimates. The diagnostics developed cover a wide range of small area estimation methods, consisting of those based on survey data only and those which combine survey and census data. By way of illustration, the proposed methods are applied to SAE for poverty measures in Cambodia and Nepal.
Integrated aquaculture as a means to sustainable rural development in Cambodia: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1994) Dowall, Stephen H. F
Cambodia has traditionally had one of the highest consumption rates of fish in the world. Next to rice, freshwater fish is the major component of the Cambodian diet. However, as a consequence of environmental degradation promoted in particular by two and half decades of war and civil unrest, Cambodia's fisheries' catch has plummeted. Further, the national population has doubled over this period and continues to grow at almost three percent per annum. This has caused a substantial deterioration in the nutritional and health status of the rural population which comprises approximately 90 percent of the total population. As Cambodia's inland waters no longer provide the abundance of fish that they once did, the following research ascertains the potential for small-scale integrated aquaculture. This research is facilitated by an existing in situ project (SCALE) which is researching and developing appropriate methods of integrating small-scale aquaculture with the traditional farming systems predominant in the Kandal province of Cambodia. A case study of this project is provided in Chapter four. Much of the research involved in the design and implementation of the project was led by the author and is included in this study. While the literature shows previous research to have advanced the potential for small-scale integrated aquaculture in Southeast Asia, this potential is considered in the light of the research conducted by the SCALE project. The environmental and socioeconomic situation of rural Cambodia and its impact on the development of subsistence farming systems through the use of small-scale integrated aquaculture is the primary focus of this research. The viability of small-scale integrated aquaculture for improving the availability of fish to the rural poor, and as such, for contributing to the improvement of the rural population's nutritional status is found to be good. Further, the integration methodologies considered show that small-scale aquaculture can fulfill an integral role in contributing to the sustainable development of Cambodia's traditional farming systems. Although many of the environmental conditions reflect those found in other countries of the region, there was found to be an extreme variability in the availability of water and land in many instances. Water was either scarce or in abundance, and the ability to manage its availability poor. While few rural people were landless, land holdings were found to be fragmented and often distant from the farm house, thus posing problems of security. Socioeconomic factors are of major importance and must be accounted for if the potential of small-scale integrated aquaculture is to be realised. This will require the implementation of a development practice which relies heavily on farmer participation in the refinement of appropriate integrated aquaculture methodologies, followed by the utilisation of a farmer based extension methodology. In summary the research shows that methods of small-scale integrated aquaculture are available which have the capacity to accommodate the environmental and socioeconommic conditions unique to the area. In particular, systems involving the integration of fish with either rice, cattle and/or vegetables will be the most appropriate due to their ability to complement the existing farming systems in use in the project area. This is endorsed by two examples of financial analyses conducted on two of the project's farm-based trials. They show these systems to be simple and low-cost with considerable potential for facilitating the improvement of farm productivity. At the project level the cost-benefit analysis of the SCALE project shows that the wider development of small-scale integrated aquaculture can be economically justified and is an efficient use of resources in the implementation of sustainable rural development appropriate to the area.
Agri-food system transformation : a case study of the effects on Cambodian pig value chain actors : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriCommerce, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2018) Thai, Rithy
Agri-food system transformation has rapidly spread from developed countries to developing countries in Asia including Cambodia. It is often argued that the transformation presents both economic opportunities and challenges for smallholder enterprises of agri-food value chains. Pig production is a very important livestock sub-sector in Cambodia via both the provision of protein for the general population and critical employment and income stream not only for rural households but also all actors along the value chains. The main aim of this research is to examine the effects of agri-food transformation on pig value chain actors in Cambodia. The findings of this study are useful for all Cambodian pig value chain stakeholders include concerned government authorities, development partners (NGOs), research institutes, private investment sector, as well as the value chain actors. A qualitative approach was employed in this study. Data was collected through secondary source and primary source via face-to-face interviews with respondents from the government, industry as well as pig value chain actors from the study province, Kampong Speu. The findings of the study identified the restructuring patterns and a number of key opportunities and challenges faced by the various actors along the chain. Provided the effects of the transformation, it is projected that in short to long term, those smallholder chain actors along the pig value chains in Cambodia will increasingly be replaced due to the competition with larger players, and their inability to comply with the changing market requirements. Due to their constraints and important role in the development of rural agricultural community, this study pointed out that Cambodian smallholder pig producers are the most affected chain actors and need immediate supporting interventions from the relevant stakeholders. The study concluded that better governmental regulative, technical and financial policies and pig producers’ vertical (market arrangements with buyers) and horizontal (collective action) coordination are essential in tackling the challenges facing Cambodian smallholder pig producers under this transformational market environment. Keywords: Agri-food system transformation, Cambodian pig value chains, smallholders, vertical coordination, horizontal coordination
Creative capacity building : enhancing participatory design with rural Cambodian farmers: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2019) Drain, Andrew Rolf
The development of technology to address challenges faced by underserved communities in developing countries has become the focus of many engineers and designers in the Western world. However, to date, such technologies have not had the level of positive impact and long-term adoption predicted. Research shows this is due to contextually-driven factors not being taken into account, such as a lack of locally available materials and skills, harsh environmental conditions and a lack of buy-in from the community. Projects which include the community in the process of identifying and prioritizing the challenges they face, generating ideas and building prototypes, have been proven to be more effective at creating solutions that are accepted and maintained. This process, known as Participatory Design (PD), is growing in popularity. However, PD practitioners still struggle to facilitate true collaboration with communities with documented challenges focusing on communities having a lack of understanding of design, problem solving and creativity as well as a lack of confidence and motivation to contribute to a long-term PD project. This study aims to resolve this challenge by utilizing knowledge from the field of Creative Capacity Building (CCB); an education-focused field that looks to improve an individual’s ability to independently problem solve and innovate through structured, hands-on training sessions. Based on literature, a CCB programme was designed, to be completed at the beginning of a long-term PD project. This aimed to be succinct, engaging and socio-culturally appropriate to the specific community. A six-month, multi-case study was undertaken with several partner organizations in rural Cambodia. The study aimed to collaborate with rural people with disability, to create technology that improved their ability to engage in agricultural practices. Results showed that the implementation of CCB positively affected the community’s ability to contribute contextual insights to the project as well as their understanding of the design process and motivation to contribute. CCB was not found to improve the community’s ability to critique existing designs or their ability to create prototypes, competencies that were already strong; nor their ability to generate ideas, a competency that was weak. Other findings included a positive relationship between the use of making-style activities and community motivation, an inverse relationship between group size and community ability to express opinions and a new conceptual model to describe the collaborative partnership between designer and community. Keywords: participatory design; capacity building; agriculture; developing context; humanitarian technology development; humanitarian engineering
The gulf between rhetoric & reality : an examination of the gap between development theory and development practice in the care of Cambodian orphans : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North Campus
(Massey University, 2005) Greenfield, Craig
Like many other Developing World countries. Cambodia is in the midst of an orphan crisis. At least 77,000 children have lost their parents to AIDS and many thousands more have been orphaned by civil war. landmines and other tragedies. These orphans face an uncertain future. Traditionally in Cambodia, most of these children have been cared for within the community in which they lived with their parents. Current development theory strongly promotes such community-based care for orphans and argues that Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) should use their resources to support and strengthen communities in that task instead of placing children in institutions such as orphanages. However, for every community-based orphan care program set up by NGOs in Cambodia, six orphanages are established. The development rhetoric on care for orphans is not matched by the development practice reality in Cambodia. There is a gap between theory and practice in the care of Cambodian orphans, a disconnection between what development theorists promote and what development practitioners implement. This research project examines the gap between development theory and practice in the care of Cambodian orphans. Results of the study will enhance understanding of the possible reasons for this disparity and suggest ways to close the gap and bring greater congruence between development theory and practice in this field. The study initially looked at the literature on care for orphans and established general principles as advanced by the development texts. Secondly, the study provided an overview of current practice in Cambodia in the care of orphans. Finally, an examination was made of the gap between theory and practice in Cambodia: in order to understand this gap, primary research has been conducted with development practitioners to establish possible reasons for it.

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