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Item Experiences of precarity for Māori in Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2025-04-30) Martin, AhnyaSocioeconomic precarity and in-work poverty are associated with increased exposure to ill-health and untimely death. Presently in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ), there are many conversations in public discourse about the precariat, or people experiencing in-work poverty, and what “they” need. There are fewer conversations with households experiencing precarity to understand the insecurities they face in relation to inadequate incomes and associated insecurities in housing, food, and leisure, and how various policies designed by more affluent groups frustrate or improve their precarious situations. Successive governments have continued to act without adequate dialogue with the precariat, with less than desirable outcomes. These outcomes are particularly stark for Māori who as a result of ongoing processes and the legacies of colonisation are overrepresented within the precariat. Understanding precarity for Māori from the perspectives of those who are directly impacted is imperative if we are to ensure policy measures are successful in preventing and alleviating in-work poverty. This thesis contributes to current Indigenous efforts to theorise the contemporary and lived experiences of precarity for Māori. I have approached precarity as a cultural and economic assemblage that can be reassembled to enhance the lives of members of the precariat. Speaking to methodological pluralism, I have employed a qualitative methodology of enhanced interviewing using mapping and photo elicitation guided by Kaupapa Māori (KM) praxis to enact this culturally centred approach that is informed by tikanga (protocols/customs) Māori. Four consecutive engagements with one Cook Island Māori and nine Māori households (40 interviews in total) informed the development of various policy initiatives to address issues of precarity. Chapter 1 serves to historicise and situate the evolution of precarity within Aotearoa NZ: particularly for Māori. Chapter 2 (Publication 1) reflects on this application of KM praxis to document and respond to the everyday experiences of households living in precarity in Aotearoa NZ. I outline the relationally ethical and community-engaged methodology informed by key cultural principles which I have employed in my research design and fieldwork. The findings inform my recommendations for policy which responds to household needs. The third chapter (Publication 2) draws on assemblage theory to document the participants’ everyday experiences of precarity and how policy initiatives emerge as key elements within the everyday lives of the precariat. The fourth chapter (Publication 3) shifts the focus to householders’ engagement in leisure as they cope with and respond agentively to situations of precarity. I document how core Māori principles and processes of whanaungatanga (cultivating positive relationships) and manaakitanga (caring for self and others) are foregrounded in household engagements in contemporary leisure practices. Overall, this thesis contributes to current Indigenous theorising of precarity by providing insights into the lived experiences of the consequences of policy efforts to alleviate the multifaceted insecurities associated with household precarity. Recommendations to inform policy settings are outlined at the final discussion chapter.Item Dietary intake, household food insecurity, and their associations with anthropometric status and sociodemographic factors amongst young New Zealand children : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Nutritional Science, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024-04-08) Jupiterwala, Rosario Pillar MonzalesBackground: Household food insecurity is a serious public health concern that may impact young children's dietary intake. In New Zealand (NZ), there are limited studies on young children’s dietary intake. However, comprehensive dietary data is crucial to ensure that young NZ children obtain adequate energy and nutrient intakes to support their optimal growth and development. Certain sociodemographic groups are disproportionately affected by household food insecurity, which may have been reflected by the high proportion of obesity in NZ compared to other high-income countries and poor dietary consumption indicative of suboptimal nutrition. Aim: Therefore, this thesis aims to describe the energy and nutrient intakes, food group consumption, and household food security status of young NZ children, their relationship, and associated correlates such as anthropometric status, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, sex, age, caregiver characteristics, and household size and structure. Methods: Two 24-hour food recalls from 289 children aged 1-3 years participating in the Young Foods NZ (YFNZ) study were analysed to obtain energy, nutrient, and food group intake data. YFNZ is an observational cross-sectional study of children living in Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin, NZ. Household food security status was measured using the NZ food security scale, a NZ-specific and validated questionnaire. NZ Index of Deprivation was utilised as a proxy measure of socioeconomic status. Anthropometric status was measured using the Body Mass Index (BMI) z-score. Data on other sociodemographic characteristics such as ethnicity, sex, age, caregiver characteristics, household size and structure were collected through online and interviewer-assisted questionnaires. Results: Overall, most nutrient intake recommendations were met except for fibre, iron, calcium, and vitamin C, with a proportion of inadequacy at 54.0%, 15.2%, 3.8%, and 4.8% respectively. Additionally, high protein and saturated fat intakes were observed. Māori, Pacific, Asian, and children living in areas of high deprivation were more at risk of lower fibre intakes than their counterparts, whilst children living in areas of high deprivation had a higher fat intake than those living in low-deprived neighbourhoods. Grains and pasta (n=276 participants), fruits (n=266), and biscuits, crackers, cakes, and desserts (n=242) were most commonly consumed. Formulae (i.e., infant and follow-on formula mixes) and mixed dishes primarily contributed to the intake of energy and most nutrients. Children who were more likely to consume dairy products and dairy-alternative products were children with healthy weight compared to those who were overweight (p=0.036), NZ European compared to Māori, Asian and Pacific children (p=0.005), and children living in areas of low deprivation compared to those who live in highly deprived areas (p=0.014). Food insecure children were more likely to consume pies and pasties (p=0.013), potatoes, kūmara and taro (p=0.040), and beverages (i.e., all fluids except for milk and water) (p=0.011) but less likely to consume biscuits, crackers, cakes and desserts (p=0.001), vegetables (p=0.005), and nuts and seeds (p=0.004). Energy-dense and nutrient-poor foods such as sausages and processed meats; sugar, confectionery, sweet spreads; and pies and pasties were the primary contributors to Pacific children's energy intake and those living in areas of higher deprivation and food insecure households. Over a third of young children experienced food insecurity in the past year. Being overweight, Māori or Pacific, living in areas of high deprivation; having a caregiver who was younger, not in paid employment, or had low educational attainment; living with at least two other children in the household, and living in a sole parent household were associated with household food insecurity. Compared to food-secure children, moderately food-insecure children had higher fat and saturated fat intakes, consuming 3.0 (0.2, 5.8) g/day more fat, and 2.0 (0.6, 3.5) g/day more saturated fat (p<0.05). Moderately and severely food insecure children had lower fibre intake, consuming 1.6 (2.8, 0.3) g/day and 2.6 (4.0, 1.2) g/day less fibre, respectively, compared to food secure children. Severely food-insecure children had three times the prevalence of inadequate calcium intakes and over three times the prevalence of inadequate vitamin C intakes compared to food-secure children. Conclusion: Young NZ children consume a diet that is mostly adequate in terms of most nutrients with the exception of fibre, iron, calcium, and vitamin C. High intakes of nutrients of concern (i.e., saturated fat and protein) were detected and reported to be commonly sourced from low-cost, energy-dense, and nutrient-poor foods. The consumption of these foods mirrors the high prevalence of household food insecurity and obesity amongst young NZ children. Other sociodemographic factors closely related to poverty or low income were associated with food insecurity. Therefore, targeted policies and programmes are imperative, particularly for the most vulnerable groups, to ensure young children's optimal growth and development and attain more equitable health outcomes in NZ.Item Human capital effects for productivity and income : a New Zealand perspective : a thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics at Massey University, School of Economics and Finance, Massey University(Massey University, 2023-11-28) Thomson, JeffreyThe overarching purpose of this dissertation is to identify factors crucial for improving the performance of the New Zealand economy and in turn, for raising standards of living. Within this overall aim, I investigate whether and/or how human capital affects the key growth driver of labour productivity, and flowing from this, worker income. The findings of my research suggest several policy measures to support existing government initiatives as well as identifying further avenues for research into the contribution of human capital to economic growth. In my first study I examine the effects of industry skill on labour productivity. I find gains in labour productivity from increases in capital intensity. Capital intensity is particularly effective for raising labour productivity in lower to medium-skilled industries, relative to lower-skilled. This result indicates possible skill-capital complementary effects. I also observe significant improvements in labour productivity from increases in total factor productivity. This result indicates the importance of technology adoption in New Zealand production. For input substitution effects, I observe a negative relationship between labour cost and capital intensity. This indicates that firms may reduce capital investment when managing labour cost increases. Additionally, low sensitivity is observed from increasing physical capital returns for capital investment. The latter two results are likely to be negative for productivity in the relatively labour-intensive New Zealand economy. In my second study I build on the established human capital measure of years of schooling, drilling down further to examine the impacts of the core cognitive skills of literacy, numeracy, and Information and Communications Technology (ICT) problem-solving on worker income. I find a positive relationship between proficiency in each of these three core skills and worker earnings. This result indicates demand in the New Zealand labour market for greater cognitive skill proficiency. A further important finding is that earnings are improved from greater use of ICT problem-solving skills in the workplace. This result indicates the importance of the continuing integration of technology into industries for lifting worker productivity and income. There are also significant earnings benefits from further adult education and training, after completion of foundation studies. For occupational effects, I observe a fall in the relative value of the skills of white-collar workers. However, this may be offset by greater use of numeracy skills, for each occupational skill level group. Further findings for the New Zealand labour market include that the peak level of earnings for New Zealand workers occurs for the 35 to 44-year age group and an expected negative gender earnings gap is observed for female workers. These findings indicate a loss of earnings potential for many workers, restricting the performance of the New Zealand labour market and economy. In my third study I evaluate similarities and differences in the impacts of the core cognitive skills on worker earnings internationally. I find a positive relationship between proficiency in numeracy skills in particular, and worker income. Increased usage of ICT problem-solving skills in the workplace is the most significant of the skill use variables for raising earnings internationally. This also indicates the earnings potential from greater development of this key infrastructure for economies. The results also show significant gains to worker earnings from investment in job-related adult education and training for countries with less developed programmes. I find that countries providing the strongest worker protection show the smallest range in earnings by occupational skill and by gender and age. In contrast, increasing numeracy skill improves earnings by occupational skill, with the greatest benefit for countries with more flexible labour markets. Similarly, increasing numeracy and ICT skill proficiency improves earnings for workers in the lower three age bands. This is found for numeracy proficiency in flexible labour markets. Rather than through regulation, earnings and living standards for individuals may instead be improved through greater cognitive skill proficiency in flexible labour markets.Item Expenditure patterns of Indonesian households before and after the 1997 economic crisis : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Agribusiness at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2006) Utami, Yulistiana EndahIndonesia is a developing country located in the Southeast Asian region and the fourth largest country in the world. Indonesia had a positive economic development, notably since the mid-1960s and this continued until the economic crisis in 1997. Development in the economic sector brings development in the social sector. Household expenditure is one of the social indicators used in a range of studies, particularly in the developing countries, as a common measure to assess living standards and poverty. Theories of consumption illustrate that when the economy surges, expenditure and income rise; and when the economy retrenches, expenditure and income fall. Therefore, changes in Indonesian economic development would be reflected in changes in the expenditure of Indonesian households. Furthermore, patterns of household expenditure can be used to symbolise the level of economic welfare of households, particularly in their buying capacity to meet their needs for living. In mid-1997, an economic crisis hit Indonesia and this negatively affected the country. Some of the major economic and social indicators showed that the rupiah (the Indonesian currency) fluctuated, the consumer price index climbed, poverty increased, unemployment rose and the price of rice (Indonesia's staple food) increased. By 1999, nearly two years after the 1997 crisis, the Indonesian economy began to demonstrate some signs of recovery, which was indicated by strengthened macroeconomic indicators. From 1999 onwards, GDP grew positively, inflation (CPI) went down, the exchange rate strengthened and food prices went down. Given the fact that Indonesia experienced an economic crisis in 1997, the general aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the 1997 Indonesian economic crisis on the economic welfare of households in Indonesia, with regard to their expenditure. There were three years (1996, 1999 and 2002) observed to represent the period before the economic crisis in 1997 (before 1997), the period initial adjustment of post crisis (1998-2000) and the period further adjustment of post crisis (after 2001). Five objectives were set out for the study as follows: • To examine changes in the Indonesian economy before and after the economic crisis in 1997. • To review the socio-demographic characteristics of Indonesian households. • To investigate changes in expenditure patterns of Indonesian households, in order to measure their buying capacity before and after the economic crisis in 1997. • To investigate changes in household expenditure patterns on different foods and non-food items, before and after the 1997 economic crisis in Indonesia. • To develop a typology of Indonesian households based on their expenditures. The data employed for analysis was from the SUSENAS (the national socio-economic survey) at household level conducted by the Indonesian Central Agency for Statistics (CBS). Univariate, bivariate and multivariate analytical methods were performed for the data analysis. The results showed that the economic crisis in 1997 led to the decline of the purchasing power of households in Indonesia. In the further adjustment of the post crisis (in 2002), their buying capacity level had improved, however, it had not reached their higher level before the crisis (in 1996). Food is a necessity expenditure compared to non-food. Indonesian households consumed more than 50 percent of their total expenditure on food, relative to non-food, indicating that the majority of Indonesian households are relatively poor. Necessity items included cereals and vegetables for food and housing, goods-services, health and clothing-footwear for non-food. Luxury items included meats, fruits, prepared food-drink for food and education, durable goods, tax-insurance and social activity for non-food. There were six types of Indonesian households identified, based on similarities in their expenditure. They were labelled from the 'very poor' type (T1) to the 'very wealthy' type (T6). These six types of households demonstrated different stages of expenditure patterns, moving from basic through to high non-basic expenditure. The very poor type represented about 70 percent of households in Indonesia. In conclusion, the Indonesian economic crisis in 1997 had a negative impact on households in Indonesia with regard to their household expenditures.Item The relationship between standard of living and quality of life for older New Zealanders : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2015) Graham, Stewart EdwinThe well-being of older people is an increasingly important issue. This is due to both the increasing proportion of older people in the population and rising levels of inequality in New Zealand. What well-being is and what influences well-being is an important question when considering the welfare of older people. Standard of living and quality of life offer two different ways of understanding well-being. It is vital to understand the impact that changing standard of living has on older people’s quality of life. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between standard of living and quality of life and consider the impact of other factors on quality of life for older people in New Zealand. This study is a secondary analysis of data from the 2012 wave of the New Zealand Longitudinal Study of Ageing. This study includes 2984 people aged between 50 and 87 years of age. Bivariate and hierarchical multiple regression analysis was employed to explore the relationship between standard of living, quality of life, health-related variables (physical health, mental health, depression, mobility and loneliness) and demographic variables. Results revealed two main findings. Firstly, that a low standard of living does not preclude a high quality of life, but a high standard of living means a low quality of life is less likely. Secondly, the relationship between standard of living and quality of life is mediated by health-related variables. Psychological health-related variables (mental health, depression and loneliness) mediated the relationship more than physical health-related variables (physical health and mobility). These demonstrate that although a high standard of living is not a prerequisite for a high quality of life, it can potentially provide a buffer against factors which cause poor quality of life such as poor physical and mental health. Increases in standard of living for older people can therefore act to mitigate key factors contributing to poor quality of life. These findings have important implications for future policy development in relation to the welfare of older New Zealanders.Item An assessment of the income allocation, living standards, housing and living circumstances of low income households in the Auckland Region in 1998 : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Social Sciences) in Social Policy at Massey University(Massey University, 1999) Nsiah, Johnson EmmanuelThis thesis addresses one important area of social policy; that is, housing which is broadened to include the income allocation and living standards of low income households in the Auckland region. The study used three focus group discussions with five to seven participants from specific groups of low income households in the cities of Manukau and North Shore to focus ideas and viewpoints. Twelve participants (eight from Manukau City, three from North Shore City and one from Auckland City) took part in interviews, which took between 60 and 90 minutes to complete. These participants represented five single parent and three superannuitant beneficiary households and four low income-working non-beneficiary households who supplemented their low income with supplementary payments from Work and Income New Zealand and Inland Revenue Department. Both the group fora and the interviews were recorded on audiotapes and transcribed. The study used the following measures to ascertain the living standards and quality of life of the 12 households studied: income and expenditure approach, relative deprivation approaches, disadvantage indicators and social exclusion, money problem indicators, housing needs or difficulties and qualitative research approach. It was found that most of the 12 households studied: • had experienced poverty, hardships and a reduction in their standard of living and quality of life as compared to the average New Zealand household. • were not adequately housed because of the difficulties of housing affordability and unacceptable housing maintenance by Housing New Zealand. Whilst the Accommodation Supplement was assisting most of the 12 households studied to pay housing costs, 11 of the 12 households who were State House tenants had great difficulty in paying market rents. • were unable to manage their money problems and had to rely on coping strategies such as the use of foodbanks, food vouchers and second hand goods. The findings of this thesis are a powerful indictment on the Income Support, Market Rent and Accommodation Supplement policies of New Zealand Governments from 1991 to 1998. These policies have clearly abandoned 'participation and belonging' as the underlying principle of social policy.