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    Top management team attributes, multinationality and MNE performance : evidence from Chinese manufacturing enterprises : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Business at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) YE, Mingzhu
    The purpose of this research is to investigate how top management team (TMT) attributes explain the performance of Chinese Multinational Enterprises (CMNEs) by examining four TMT attributes: TMT tenure, TMT educational level, TMT international experience and TMT functional diversity. I propose that TMT attributes function as the micro-foundation of CMNEs’ performance. Previous research suggests that these selected attributes of top managers are valid proxies for TMT attitudes affecting international multinational decisions. Therefore, based on upper echelons theory and institutional theory, this research examines how multinationality mediates the relationship between TMT attributes and CMNE performance and how institutional factors of state ownership and formal institutional distance moderate the impact of TMT attributes on multinationality. This research applies a quantitative method by using large-scale secondary data to assess the proposed hypotheses. The sample generates panel data consisting of 7,627 firm-year observations from 1,125 publicly listed CMNEs. 56,188 individual top managers’ profiles are created to compute the TMT data for the sampled firms in the period from 2007 to 2019. Based on the sample of CMNEs in the manufacturing industry, the findings suggest that TMT tenure and TMT educational level have significant impacts on CMNEs’ performance and there is a U-shaped relationship between a firm’s multinationality and its performance. Moreover, multinationality partially mediates the direct TMT tenure and performance relationship. In addition, the institutional contexts the firms face in terms of state ownership and formal institutional distance are found to moderate the influence of some of TMT attributes on multinationality. The findings from this study contribute to the body of research grounded in upper echelons theory and institutional theory. It enriches the international business literature by exploring the effects of TMT attributes on multinationality. It empirically confirms that TMT tenure and TMT educational level function as a micro-foundation which has significant impacts on CMNEs’ performance, while the relationship between TMT tenure and CMNE performance is partially mediated by multinationality. Moreover, it further explores the contingency factors and boundary conditions in terms of state ownership and formal institutional distance for the relationship between TMT attributes and multinationality.
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    Experiences of women of colour who were third culture kids or internationally mobile youth : an exploratory study of implications for global leadership development : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Chatiya Nantham, Rhema Roja
    Global leadership development programmes (GLDPs) are typically focussed on competency development and teaching culturally appropriate etiquette, but, adapting to new contexts often involves challenges to people’s sense of self, addressing an area which is known as identity work. Learning from people who encountered such challenges early in life could assist in developing global leaders by offering insights into the kinds of identity work strategies needed to deal with their offshore posting, and to ensure that identity work processes are designed into such programmes. To address these aims, this study draws on the lived experiences of nine women of colour who lived outside their home country as children or adolescents, a cohort known as Third Culture Kids (TCKs), to identify various identity-related issues they encountered and the lessons these experiences offer for global leadership development. As such, this interdisciplinary study draws on and contributes to literatures related to TCKs and Adult TCKs (ATCKs), global leadership development, and identity work for leadership development. This qualitative study comprised a series of workshops designed specifically to foster identity work amongst the participants. The data was collected via virtual focus group discussions. The study adopted a combination of participatory and emancipatory action research approaches, underpinned by a social constructionist epistemology and is theoretically informed by Critical Race Feminism, anti-racist feminisms, and identity theory as key influences. These decisions reflect the aim of centring attention on a cohort routinely understudied in the TCK, global leadership development and leadership development literatures, namely women of colour. The findings were thematically analysed via an inductive approach to identify the experiences and identity work strategies of participants as TCKs in response to the racist-sexist prejudices they encountered, their implicit leadership theories and their approach to leadership, showing how the focus group process was itself a vehicle for doing identity work in relationship to their leader identities. I identify the lessons that can be drawn from TCKs, and from the methods used in this study, to inform the deployment of identity work in GLDPs. From these findings, I develop frameworks explaining the identity work processes experienced by TCKs and how they internalised their leadership identity via the methods used in my study and build models for GLDPs from these insights.
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    Post-entry internationalisation speed, managerial cognition, and firm performance : a dynamic capability perspective : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Business at Massey University, Albany, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Zhao, Chao
    Inspired by the deficiency in theoretical advancement in and fragmentation of empirical findings regarding the temporal dimension of firms’ internationalisation, this study examines the interaction effects of both mediation and moderation on the direct relationship between internationalisation speed and firm performance. Departing from prior studies that mainly focus on either the direct speed-performance linkage or the interactive role played by static resources at the firm level, the present study suggests that an important source of performance variations is the idiosyncratic dynamic capabilities both at firm level and individual managerial level. Based on the dynamic capability perspective, this study proposes that both absorptive capacity, which acts as a specific type of dynamic capability in relation to organisational learning, and managerial cognition, which functions as a micro-foundation of dynamic capability, play important roles in explaining the heterogeneity in the direct internationalisation speed-performance relationship. Moreover, the level and development of the firm’s absorptive capacity is the outcome of interactions among firm strategy in terms of internationalisation speed, managerial cognition, and their contingent factors including prior international experience and market dynamism. Using survey data collected from a sample of 343 SMEs operating in Australia and New Zealand, these assumptions are tested and confirmed through structural equation modelling. The findings suggest that absorptive capacity fully mediates the direct speed-performance relationship. Internationalisation speed, interacting with prior international experience, influences the trajectory of absorptive capacity development. In addition, managerial cognitive styles in terms of rational decision-making and heuristic decision-making are found to impose distinct influences on absorptive capacity development under the influence of market dynamism. This study makes a significant contribution to internationalisation theories. First, it reconciles the seeming inconsistency between traditional internationalisation models and international entrepreneurship literature in terms of several key learning-related factors. Moreover, it extends existing internationalisation models by taking time and managerial cognition into consideration.
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    Strategic intent, FDI entry strategies, and emerging market MNEs' subsidiary performance : the strategic fit approach : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Mi, Lili
    Employing the strategic intent perspective as the theoretical lens, this study examines how an investing firm’s foreign direct investment (FDI) entry strategies fit with its strategic intent, and how such a strategic fit influences multinational enterprises’ (MNEs) subsidiary performance in the context of emerging economies. Prior studies have emphasised the importance of strategic intent as the key determinant to sustain a firm’s competitive advantage and have investigated the drivers of strategic intent. However, little is known about whether or not, and if so, how emerging market multinationals (EMNEs) have achieved their strategic intent in the subsidiary. To address this research gap, this study sets out to investigate the linkage between strategic intent, FDI strategy, and subsidiary performance of EMNEs from the strategic intent perspective. The strategic management literature suggests that optimal performance is achieved through the strategic fit between strategies and strategic objectives. This study, therefore, adopts the strategic fit approach to investigate the fit between EMNEs’ strategic intent and FDI entry strategies (i.e. location strategy, entry mode strategy, entry timing strategy, and FDI intensity strategy). In order to reveal the fit conditions, this study proposes the theoretical framework by using two strategic fit approaches: the strategic fit as matching and the strategic fit as gestalts. The framework and the derived hypotheses are then empirically tested using survey data from 392 FDI projects made by 280 Chinese MNEs. To achieve conformity between theory testing techniques and theoretical perspectives, this study performs tests by using multiple statistical techniques including structural equation modelling, discriminant analysis, cluster analysis, and analysis of variance. The results derived from the fit as matching approach suggest that EMNEs’ strategic intent do influence their FDI entry strategies, but the intent-strategy linkage is not universally valid for all the intent-strategy combinations. Similarly, a match between the entry strategies and strategic intent does not always generate superior subsidiary performance. The results derived from the fit as gestalts approach reveal the combination profiles of FDI entry strategies and their strategic intent. Based on the patterns of the profiles, investing EMNEs can be labelled as strategic prospector, strategic analyser, strategic defender, and natural resource seeker. The results also suggest that strategic analysers tend to perform better than strategic defenders and natural resource seekers, while the differences of the performance between other groups are not significant. This study contributes to the strategic intent literature by investigating the fit between FDI entry strategies and strategic intent, and examining the subsidiary performance of EMNEs regarding the attainment of their strategic goals at the subsidiary level. Using the fit as matching and fit as gestalts approaches, this study provides a more comprehensive picture in how FDI entry strategies fit firms’ strategic intent and how such a fit generates superior subsidiary performance.
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    The multi-lens approach to understanding subsidiary contributory role development : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Win, Shane N.
    The contributory role of a foreign subsidiary refers to the intra-firm international responsibilities, through which the subsidiary contributes its firm-specific advantages to the multinational enterprise (MNE). This thesis examines development of subsidiary contributory role in terms of role expansion and role renewal. This research area has not been adequately explored in depth in prior research. The thesis addresses this research gap by grounding empirical research in multiple theories, the insights of which have not been sufficiently used to study (but are important to understand) this research area. These theories are the attention-based, global production network, institutional, resource-based, and resource dependence theories. Guided by these theories and based on the empirical data from nine case studies of foreign-owned subsidiaries in New Zealand, the thesis has developed two theoretical frameworks, named as the ‘subsidiary role expansion’ and ‘subsidiary role renewal’ frameworks respectively. The subsidiary role expansion framework suggests that subsidiary role expansion, which can occur at five levels, is affected by a combination of four factors which are identified as: (i) the parent’s positive attention; (ii) internal and external (local/global) linkages/embeddedness of the subsidiary; (iii) institutional forces in local, internal and/or transnational settings; and, (iv) deployment of superior resources by the subsidiary. The subsidiary role renewal framework provides insights into the subsidiary’s renewal/reacquisition of endangered and reallocated international responsibilities. This framework argues that endangerment and/or reallocation of a subsidiary’s international responsibilities results from the combined or individual effects of several factors. These factors include: (i) the parent’s negative attention; (ii) the parent’s limited attentional capacity; (iii) the MNE’s internal restructuring; and, (iv) subsidiary-level superior resources lacking the parent’s recognition, lacking a mobility barrier, or failing to create the MNE’s dependence. The framework analyses patterns of combined and individual effects of the parent’s positive attention and the subsidiary’s deployment of superior resources on the subsidiary’s renewal or reacquisition of endangered and reallocated international responsibilities. These two frameworks contribute to the subsidiary development literature by providing new insights into the development of subsidiary contributory roles. These frameworks have practical implications for subsidiary managers, corporate executives, and public policy makers.
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    International marketing strategies of Chinese multinationals : the case studies of Haier and Lenovo : a 156.799 research report presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Master of Management in Marketing at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2007) Guo, Jian
    Recently, multinationals emerging from transition economics have drawn a great deal of interest from marketing researchers. In particular, Chinese multinationals which have had assistance and encouragement from their government are entering into the international marketplace. It is noticeable that many Chinese multinationals have already performed aggressively in the global market. The aim of this study is to identify the international marketing strategies used by Chinese multinationals and to compare them with the findings of the existing literature. This research adopts a cross case study approach and it will primarily use secondary data collected from multiple sources, such as journal articles, published interviews and Internet databases. A review of the current academic literature on this issue indicates that few studies have been conducted in the area of Chinese multinationals' international marketing strategies. Most of the studies have concentrated on western successful multinationals' internationalisation and marketing strategies. Based on the in-depth analysis of two Chinese multinationals; Haier, and Lenovo; this report serves not only to provide Chinese multinationals with knowledge and information regarding global marketing strategies, but also contributes to the academic literature by emphasising an understanding of how Chinese multinationals compete in global markets.
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    The challenge of agricultural co-operatives internationalisation : case studies of Fonterra and Zespri : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Studies in Agribusiness at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2003) Donoso, Ignacio
    Internationalisation of agricultural co-operatives is a worldwide trend that has been identified by several studies as one of the key challenges co-operatives are currently facing. The main question that this paper aims to answer is: how can agricultural co-operatives internationalise without generating conflicts with or distancing themselves from their members? Starting with a comprehensive literature review of the internationalisation of agricultural co-operatives globally, the paper introduces a new descriptive model for determining internationalisation of co-operatives. Using the mentioned model, the paper develops in detail the case studies of two New Zealand co-operatives: Fonterra, a pure co-operative in the dairy industry and Zespri, a co-operative hybrid in the kiwifruit industry, and their internationalisation situation. Based on a cross-case comparison the paper finally outlines the risks, potential conflicts and critical factors these two co-operatives face in their internationalisation process. Keywords: agricultural co-operatives, internationalisation, international business, agribusiness, dairy industry, kiwifruit, Fonterra, Zespri.
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    Multinational corporations and workforce empowerment : an examination of the labour dimensions of a water privatisation venture in contemporary South Africa : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University
    (Massey University, 2001) Madubanya, Khutso
    "FDI has become the largest and most stable source of external finance for developing countries." (World Investment Report 2000: 58) As private funds increasingly replace foreign aid as the main mode of defining North-South economic relations in the early 21st century, the debate over the impact of multinational corporations (MNCs) on host developing countries has become ever more alive. On the one hand, proponents view MNCs as conducive for development as they bring with them much needed capital, technology and skills without which developing country economies are deemed to be stagnant. Opponents, on the other hand, regard MNCs as exploitative of developing country resources and cultures, thereby being detrimental to the development of host developing countries. This thesis attempts to examine this debate more closely. It examines foreign direct investment (FDI) in the form of water privatisation involving public-private partnerships (PPPs). It takes a close look at the operations of one water MNC, Waterco, acting as main shareholder and operator of the concession company South African Water Company (SAWCO) in the north-eastern part of South Africa. As customary of MNC operations worldwide, particularly concessions, Waterco operated in joint-partnership with a local black empowerment group, Localco, to form SAWCO. As the main driving force behind SAWCO, its operations are assessed through SAWCO's performance. The objective of the study is to assess the impact of SAWCO on its workforce, in the light of the argument that MNCs arguably empower the workforce of the host country by creating employment, offering better conditions of service and transferring skills. In particular, the study seeks to examine the extent to which SAWCO had led to greater or lesser empowerment of its workforce by the end of its first year of operation. Lessons are then drawn from this examination in order to inform SAWCO's management, government bodies, stakeholders involved in the SAWCO concession, and global/local debates on considering similar concession agreements. The study discovers that in the case of SAWCO, policies fostering workforce empowerment were in place. However, these policies suffered from lack of long-term foresight. The policies indeed mitigated against the possibility of a short-term erosion in employment quantity (job security) and quality (competitive conditions of service, workplace democracy and skills upgrading) but lacked long-term prescriptions on these measures. In practice, no short-term employment losses had occurred, though this result could not be guaranteed for the future, especially given the lack of long-term policy prescriptions. Employment quantity appeared to be mainly hindered by poor communication channels between the workforce and SAWCO's management and inadequate monitoring tools, which had bred numerous problems. These problems included worker discontent and confusion related to workers not knowing their work-related rights and entitlements, as well as company operations. The effectiveness of the training programmes offered by SAWCO were also questionable due to poor worker consultation. At the time of the study, no provisions were being made in terms of skills acquiring, to prepare for public operation of the services at the end of the concession period. From analysing the type of input labour made in the establishment of SAWCO (labour participation), It became clear that labour never fully supported the privatisation process involving SAWCO. This was due to the fact that labour consultation had not occurred at some of the critical initial stages of the privatisation process. This outcome raises questions relating to the amount of national leverage, and subsequently 'protection', that the South African government is able to grant to its citizens (represented in this case by labour) against MNC interests. Extrapolating from the SAWCO case study, it is concluded that in the context of South Africa where unemployment is high, labour union movements strong, the economy's labour absorptive capacity and labour's level of skills are low, involving MNCs in PPP arrangements has the potential to be beneficial for the empowerment of the local workforce. In order to make this possible however, the government bodies employing an MNC in such arrangements need to have leverage over the MNC by being politically cohesive, set stringent policies (with time-lines) governing the MNC's labour performance, create an environment fostering healthy industrial relations, and tighten monitoring tools to ensure compliance of the MNC with the laws and policies binding it.
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    Subsidiary classification, and configuration with a developmental context : evidence from foreign multinational enterprises in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor Philosophy in Strategic Management at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) Raziq, Muhammad Mustafa
    Research has produced a range of subsidiary classifications indicating various ways in which subsidiaries can be distinguished. There are, however, still concerns that many of the critical contingencies remain unexplored. It is, for example, argued that the existing subsidiary types are either multinational enterprise (MNE) strategy-based or process-based, rather than based on the subsidiary’s own strategy. The frameworks are: two-dimensional (Enright & Subramanian, 2007; Morschett, Schramm-Klein, & Zentes, 2015); lack theoretical basis; and, their dimensions are arbitrary (Schmid, 2004; Schmid, Dzedek, & Lehrer, 2014). They are also disconnected to the previous frameworks (Hoffman, 1994). MNE management structure is one such contingency. Subsidiary studies mostly focus on the corporate headquarters (CHQ) as the subsidiary developmental driver, but ignore the varying developmental influences. Namely, the structures (i.e., lateral or formal) placed on subsidiaries. Most of the ignored contingencies are contextual (Enright & Subramanian, 2007; Meyer, Mudambi, & Narula, 2011). Little is known about how various subsidiaries configure with these contexts. Putting subsidiary development to the fore, these issues are integrated and two research objectives are set. One issue concerns developing a subsidiary classification, and the other concerns subsidiary and context configuration. This thesis’s empirical context is foreign subsidiaries in New Zealand. Data from 429 subsidiaries are obtained. Cluster analysis and variance analysis are the key techniques used. Grounded in the resource-based view, resource dependence theory, and network theory, an overarching subsidiary classification framework is produced. The framework follows a contingency approach and draws on critical dimensions from the various subsidiary literature streams. From this framework a new three-part subsidiary developmental classification (entrepreneurial, constrained autonomous, constrained) is produced. By applying a configurational approach, various linkages are explored between the three subsidiary types and their developmental contexts. A number of developmental contingencies are identified; such as MNE management structures, expatriation, internationalisation motives, and internal isolation. Key findings include the lateral structure as the one under which subsidiaries develop the most, and the CHQ, the least. Individual developmental paths for the three subsidiary types are proposed. Theoretical implications are subsequently made, mainly identifying factors through which subsidiaries can develop resources and form internal resource dependencies. The novelty of the findings is discussed and subsidiary management and public policy implications are made. Keywords: MNE Strategy, Subsidiary Strategy, Subsidiary Development, Subsidiary Classification, Developmental Context, MNE Management Structure.
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    An analysis of MNE subsidiary performance : the exemplary case of Toyota New Zealand : a 115.897 & 115.898 (total 120 credit) thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Business Studies at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) Osten, Sheina C
    Within the ever-expanding global market place the importance of understanding MNE parent-subsidiary relationships and the impact on subsidiary performance has become increasingly important. International business researchers have examined MNE entry processes into foreign markets; the methods of international business operations; and, processes for organisational and subsidiary control as contributors to performance. But little attention has been paid to the contribution from subsidiary-level attributes, those attributes held and or developed within the subsidiary itself. Toyota New Zealand’s (TNZ) sustained success in the New Zealand market place over the past three decades suggests that local-level factors must be enabling TNZ to achieve this level of performance. In no other market in the world has Toyota achieved the same level of success as that achieved in New Zealand, and concurrently across multiple market segments (e.g., small car, Corolla; light truck 4WD, Hilux; commercial van, Hiace). As a consequence TNZ appears to be a worthy site – an exemplar case study - in which to explore the attributes/mechanisms used within a subsidiary business that actually achieve disproportionate performance relative to competitors at a local level. The aim of the research is to identify the specific strategies or attributes that produce every-day, long-term performance in a subsidiary business. The relationship between subsidiary ownership and business performance; and, what influences the variation in performance of subsidiaries must be understood. The methodology used to conduct this research is a mixed methods approach with the objective to maximise the ability for data analysis through multiple data sources. Secondary data complimented by primary data from semi-structured interviews were collected for the analysis. All secondary data collected was sourced through the public domain largely from internet and company searches. Websites belonging to automotive manufacturers and government websites were primarily used. Primary data was collected through semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine participants from various managerial levels within TNZ. The nature of the headquarters-subsidiary relationship at TNZ is better understood following the completion of this research. The analysis suggests that the effective exercise of local control (subsidiary governance) appears to play just as large a role in subsidiary success as global company factors. It has already been recognised that a higher degree of subsidiary autonomy is related to subsidiary success and that autonomy in relation to local or regional factors is common. The findings from this research have identified six “levers” which appear to be under and important to effective subsidiary control, either in a full or partial state; employees; strategy; brand; culture; product; and, pricing. The research suggests that by allowing employees a high degree of autonomy, employee engagement, motivation, productivity, and performance is improved. Local strategy is important for establishing a clear direction and defined goals which can be achieved through long-term strategic direction. It is demonstrated through this research that deliberate local brand messages can also be critical in ensuring long term success. A strong company culture with sound ethical and business values are observed to provide a foundation for all business practices, principles, and actions to stem from. Product can be restricted by the parent, however, localisation of a global product is an important point of control for a subsidiary. Similar to product, a global price is not suitable for all markets if the product is to be successful a local price must be set to meet the local market. All six levers of local control emerge from the research, all of which result from effective local governance.