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    Biochemical and haematological reference intervals for 3–4-week-old kiwi chicks (Apteryx mantelli) reared in captivity
    (Taylor and Francis Group, 2025-08-12) Scheltema EM; Howe L; Pickard KMO; Fletcher MC; Gartrell BD; Singh PM; Morgan KJ
    Aims: To establish biochemical and haematological 95% reference intervals (RI) for juvenile North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) chicks using parametric analysis. Methods: Blood samples were collected from healthy 3–4-week-old, captive-reared North Island brown kiwi chicks (n = 32; male = 19, female = 13). Concentrations of total plasma protein (TPP), uric acid, glucose, phosphorus, calcium, albumin, globulin, potassium, and sodium and activities of aspartate aminotransferase and creatine kinase (CK) were measured using an automated VetScan VS2 laboratory analyser and the Abaxis Avian-Reptilian Profile Plus. Total and differential white blood cell counts were determined manually on blood smears prepared with a modified Wright-Giemsa stain. TPP was also measured manually using a refractometer, and packed cell volume (PCV) was measured using microhaematocrit tubes. RI were calculated using parametric and non-parametric methods depending on the distribution of the data. Confidence intervals (90%) around upper and lower bounds of the RI were calculated to assess certainty of the intervals. Results: Biochemical (n = 28; male = 17; female = 11) and haematological (n = 22; male = 14, female = 8) 95% RI were generated for juvenile North Island brown kiwi. The 90% CI of the upper or lower limits of the majority of the RI generated were > 0.2 times the RI, reflecting the relatively small sample size. There was no evidence of a difference in mean biochemical values collected from sedated vs. un-sedated, and male vs. female chicks. However, the concentration of phosphorus was higher (p = 0.034) in samples that were analysed > 1 hour after collection (2.097 (SD 0.202) mmol/L) compared to samples analysed < 1 hour after collection (1.856 (SD 0.349) mmol/L). Conclusions: This data provides the first comprehensive biochemical and haematological RI generated for Apteryx spp. chicks carried out under uniform collection and sample handling protocols, making the results robust and applicable to other captive-reared kiwi chicks. Clinical relevance: In comparison to published RI from adult kiwi (Doneley 2006; Morgan 2008), kiwi chicks in this study had lower PCV, TPP and uric acid concentrations, and higher CK activities, white cell counts and lymphocyte counts. These RI are of value to wildlife veterinarians and conservation managers assessing the health of individual kiwi chicks, and for population-level comparison of birds of different ages and living in different managed or wild habitats.
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    What they do in the shadows : habitat utilisation and diet of brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) adults within a high-density island population : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) Dixon, Thomas
    Exploring the complex interactions between an animal and its spatial environment can reveal much about its biology and behaviour and identify strategies to improve future management. Despite this, surprisingly little research has been undertaken in this field in respect to one of New Zealand’s most iconic endangered species, the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). This thesis aims to produce the most comprehensive report to date of brown kiwi spatial behaviour, investigating the habitat utilisation of brown kiwi adults within a high-density population while they are active at night and when roosting during the day. Additionally, the study examines how habitat utilisation varies, and explores the likely drivers of brown kiwi spatial behaviour including food availability, social/reproductive cues, population demographics and environmental variables. Forty seven radio-tagged brown kiwi adults were tracked across a 1.2km2 study site on Ponui Island from March 2013 to February 2014. The utilisation of major habitat types (forest, scrub, pasture and swamp) by each bird was measured, plotted upon a generated habitat map, and compared to predicted rates based on habitat availability to assess habitat selection. To assess habitat selection while foraging, brown kiwi were tracked at night using radio telemetry and their positions estimated using a triangulation methodology. Exact bird locations were also recorded during the day to evaluate their roost habitat selection. Roost sites were also classified into four different types of roost (tree burrow, soil burrow, surface, swamp site). Brown kiwi faecal samples were collected over this time and compared with pitfall trap samples to analyse diet and identify spatial patterns in foraging behaviour. As hypothesised, brown kiwi selected forest habitat most often for both foraging and roosting, also choosing the more structurally stable tree and soil burrow shelter sites. Other habitat types were utilised much less than predicted, though rates varied between seasons, gullies, demographics and behaviours. Pasture was identified as seasonally important for brown kiwi, utilised increasingly by study birds over summer and autumn when foraging. Additionally, a relationship between their spatial behaviour while foraging and while roosting was recognised for the first time, suggesting that these behaviours are not independent. Invertebrate availability was identified as the primary driver of brown kiwi spatial behaviour, with foraging behaviour trends closely matching nocturnal spatial behaviour. Social and breeding behaviours were discussed as other potential drivers, though further research is required to fully understand these relationships. Research findings confirmed that brown kiwi have an opportunistic diet, appearing to select those invertebrate groups that provide the highest protein input more often in their diet. Foraging strategy changed between seasons and locations, likely driven by a combination of changing invertebrate lifecycles, environmental conditions and dietary requirements. This study has improved our understanding of brown kiwi spatial behaviour, introducing new information and refining previous knowledge. The findings provide valuable information for managers as they work to conserve remaining brown kiwi populations, and will become increasingly relevant in the future as population densities begin to rise.
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    The triumphs, challenges and failures of young North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a study of behaviour, growth, dispersal and mortality : a thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Wilson, Alexandra Louise
    North Island brown kiwi (NIBK, Apteryx mantelli), an endemic New Zealand species, are estimated to have declined by 90% from pre-human colonisation numbers. Currently, at least 60% of mortality is attributed to introduced mammalian predators, namely stoats (Mustela erminea) preying on chicks. Therefore, conservation effort focuses on predator trapping/killing, and hatching and rearing NIBK chicks in captivity and releasing them back into the wild. These efforts are resulting in increased recruitment of chicks into populations. However, little is known about the biology and behaviour of NIBK chicks in the wild and how this may affect management of these populations. Consequently, the aim of this study was to examine the ecology of young wild NIBK in a natural high density population with reduced predator diversity on Ponui Island. More specifically, the goal was to determine their growth rates, behaviour around the natal nest, dispersal and mortality, and how these factors may be influenced by environmental variables. During the 2010 - 2011 and 2011 - 2012 breeding seasons 29 young NIBK were observed from hatching until mortality or the end of 2012. Remote video cameras were set up outside nests to record behaviour. Juveniles were located daily as often as possible and location, habitat type, roost type and visibility were recorded. Growth measurements of weight, bill and tarsus lengths were taken monthly in the first season and weekly in the second. Invertebrate abundance and availability were also measured using pitfall traps and soil penetrability. Lastly, young NIBK found dead were preserved in formalin and sent for autopsy to accurately determine the cause of death. NIBK on Ponui Island were found to grow slower Kg = 0.0052 than a NIBK population measured previously at Lake Waikaremoana (Kg = 0.006) and 296 other bird species measured to date using the Gompertz growth curve. Females grew faster than males for the first 90 days after hatching. Sample size was too small to do further comparisons after this age. The rate of growth for body mass increased with age whereas the rate of growth for bill length and tarsus length decreased with increasing age, until at least 90 days of age. On a monthly scale, with increasing temperature food abundance significantly increased and soil penetrability declined; on a weekly scale temperature significantly affected growth rates with NIBK growing fastest between 19 - 22°C. I hypothesised that this was because with increasing temperature, food abundance increased, until a point where the soil became too hard for NIBK to probe for food resulting in the optimum growth rate between 19 - 22°C. In 161 nights of nest observation I observed seven interactions between a chick and the adults at the nest. These observations are interesting because NIBK were not previously known to interact with their young outside the nest. The behaviours are ambiguous and therefore I was unable to be sure of the context. Juveniles changed roost location most days and the movements between roost sites of individuals were highly variable. Daily dispersal distance was significantly affected by temperature and season, juveniles moved further in the warmer seasons and there was a positive relationship between dispersal distance and temperatures. Lastly, the mortality rate of NIBK in this population was high at 87.5% with most young NIBK dying from natural causes such as starvation and disease before 90 days of age. Cat predation was found to be higher at 30% relative to mainland populations where cat predation contributes to 5 - 9% of mortalities. This study highlights that population density, temperature, food availability and causes of mortality other than predation are important factors to consider when researching, conserving and translocating NIBK.
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    Investigating the physiological impacts of capture and handling on threatened avian species by using surrogate species as models : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Burns, Thomas Stephen
    The conservation management of many threatened species requires the capture and handling of wild individuals for monitoring, translocation or research purposes. However whenever wild animals are captured and handled there is the potential for these procedures to negatively impact the animal and result in altered behaviour or physiology, injury and even death. Therefore this thesis aimed to investigate what physiological impacts routine capture and handling may be having on threatened avian species in New Zealand by using surrogate species of birds as models for threatened birds. Layer hens (Gallus domesticus) were used as surrogates to model the physiological impacts of capture and handling on kiwi (Apteryx spp.). A treatment and control group of hens were serially blood sampled over 72 hours. Hens in the control group were placed in a box between blood samples and hens in the treatment group went through a simulation of a kiwi chase, capture and handling scenario. After 72 hours all birds were euthanized and their muscles examined histopathologically. Wild pukeko (Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus) captured using a net-gun at the Awapuni Sustainable Development Centre in Palmerston North were used as surrogates to model the physiological impacts of capture and handling on takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri). Wild mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) captured using a net-gun at Massey University’s Turitea campus were used as surrogates to model the physiological impacts of capture and handling on threatened waterfowl such as pateke/brown teal (Anas chlorotis), or whio/blue duck (Hymenolaimus malachorhynchos). All mallards and pukeko captured were serially blood sampled at capture (0 minutes), 30 and 120 minutes. Within each species there was a control group that was held in a box between samples and a treatment group which was handled according best practice protocol for takahe (for pukeko) or pateke (for mallards). A further group of pukeko was also shot using a rifle as comparison. To assess the physiological impact of capture, biochemical analytes measured included plasma concentrations of the enzymes creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH) and the stress hormone corticosterone (CORT). In mallards and pukeko capture using the net-gun the plasma concentrations of uric acid (UA) were also measured. Capture was found to elicit a stress response in all three of the species studied as shown by elevated plasma CORT; however there were differences between species on the effect of capture on plasma CK, AST, GLDH and UA. The handling protocol was found to have minimal impact on the physiological response of any of the species and the impact of capture either overrode the effects of handling or handling protocol was simply not a significant factor on any of the biochemical analytes measured. Layer hens were found to have altered physiology at the commencement of the study, probably due to the high metabolic demands of egg production. There was also significant variation in their ‘normal’ physiology and physiological response between the two weeks they were studied. Layer hens are therefore considered to be inappropriate surrogates for kiwi or any wild bird. Baseline levels of the biochemical analytes of pukeko that were captured using a net-gun and those that were shot were similar. The time of day the pukeko were captured caused significant variation in the concentration of plasma GLDH and UA. Capture did cause significant elevations in plasma CK and AST showing subclinical muscle damage was occurring in the pukeko and this damage and the stress response was greater when the pukeko were captured in flight. Capture also had a significant if less clearly defined impact on renal and gastro-intestinal physiology. Seasonal variation and some time of day variation were observed in the concentration of CK in mallard ducks. While capture caused a significant stress response in captured mallards it did not have a significant effect on CK, GLDH or UA. Plasma AST concentrations decreased significantly following capture albeit by a very small amount. The difference found between species in their physiological response to similar procedures highlights that surrogate species may not be appropriate and validation between the surrogate and threatened species is required. Small differences in the capture technique may have a significant impact on the animal’s physiological response. In conclusion the handling protocol has a minimal physiological impact on these birds following capture and further research should focus on capture techniques and protocols. If surrogate species are used for further research then there should be some attempt to validate that the physiological response observed is similar in the threatened species.
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    The effect of light on the behaviour of captive brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli : implications for captive management : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Grant, Roseanne Kate
    The impact of light intensity and spectrum on the behaviour of captive brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli was examined through behavioural observation. This topic was chosen as most animals have a significant response to light and there are currently no guidelines for the light regimes of nocturnal houses or brooder rooms that house brown kiwi. In the first experiment the amount of time that a kiwi spent in enclosure areas illuminated by four different colours was observed. The behaviour of the kiwi was not affected by colour but significantly more time was spent in enclosure areas that were darker and close to the edge of the enclosure. A second experiment investigated the amount of time that eight captive display kiwi spent in areas of their enclosure based on illumination intensity; again more time was spent in darker and peripheral areas as well as in areas of moderate to high structural coverage though these factors were interacting and did not singularly explain where time was spent in the enclosure. Finally the effect of early brooder light exposure on the later outdoor emergence times of nine neonatal brown kiwi was observed. Chicks that were housed for their first month of life in brooders diurnally lit by 150-200 lux emerged sooner after sunset once they were later housed in outdoor pens; this is compared with chicks housed in brooders brighter than 300 lux. Overall, light intensity and structure appeared to be the most significant environmental factors though much individual variation was found. Based on my results nocturnal houses that are no brighter than five lux and have at least 50% structurally covered and peripheral areas are most likely to be preferred by kiwi. Brooder boxes may need to be dimmed if a long-term behavioural effect is occurring from current brooder light regimes. These results support the widely held belief that kiwi do not rely on vision for information about their surroundings but may have good perception of light intensity as a result of having high rod photoreceptor density. It is more likely that kiwi rely on highly developed tactile and olfactory senses than vision. Results may be applicable to nocturnal mammals that also show high predator avoidance behaviour and/or do not rely on vision, such as some primates and rodents.
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    Ancient DNA analysis of Māori feather cloaks and kete : implications for conservation and culture : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Molecular Biosciences at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand, 2012
    (Massey University, 2012) Hartnup, Katie
    Feather cloaks (kakahu) and bags (kete), particularly those adorned with kiwi feathers, are treasured items or taonga to the Maori people of New Zealand. They are considered iconic expressions of Maori culture. Despite their status, much of our knowledge of the materials used to construct these artefacts, the provenance of these artefacts and the origins of these traditions, has been lost. We used ancient DNA methods to recover mitochondrial DNA sequences from 849 feather samples taken from 109 kiwi feathered cloaks (kahu kiwi) and 161 feather samples from 55 kiwi feathered kete (kete kiwi). We show that almost all (>99%) of the cloaks and all (100%) of the kete were constructed using feathers from North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Just one cloak was found to have been constructed using feathers from little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii). The remaining three species of kiwi (Apteryx haasti, Apteryx rowi and Apteryx australis) were not found in any of the cloaks and kete sampled. Molecular sexing of nuclear DNA from 92 feather cloak samples also revealed that the sex-ratio of birds deviated from a ratio of 1:1 observed in reference populations, with a male skew observed. Additionally, a reference database of 185 North Island brown kiwi mitochondrial control region DNA sequences was constructed, comprising samples collected from 26 North Island locations together with data available from the literature. For contemporary populations, we saw a phylogeographic structuring of haplotypes using both SAMOVA and Nested Clade Analysis into Eastern, Northern and West and Central populations. Utilising this structuring, it was possible to infer the provenance of 847 kiwi feathers from 108 cloaks and 153 kiwi feathers from 52 kete. A surprising proportion of cloaks (15%) and some kete (5.5%) were found to contain feathers from different geographic locations providing evidence of either kiwi trading among Maori tribes (iwi), tribal displacement, or organised hunting trips into other tribal areas. The data also suggests that the east of the North Island was the most prolific of all kiwi cloak and kete making areas, accounting for over 50% of all cloaks analysed and over 58% of all kete. This could indicate that the East of the North Island was the epicentre for this cultural tradition. Also, the structuring observed in the reference database will prove to be useful to conservationists, such as the New Zealand Department of Conservation, when deciding strategies to maintain populations of New Zealand’s most iconic bird. The genetic analysis of these treasured items has been invaluable in enriching our knowledge and rebuilding their lost histories. Additionally, genetic data from historical items can aid our understanding or how populations change overtime, thus aiding conservation of valuable species.
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    Characterisation of limb development and locomotion in the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Jones, Erica Anne
    This thesis covers broad topics concerning limb growth and development and their effects on locomotion in the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). I begin by describing the morphological features of a collection of unknown-age wild kiwi embryos from early development to point of hatch. Using these features, I assign developmental stages to each embryo and compare the progress of development to the same-staged ostrich and chicken embryos. Measurements of the hindlimb, bill and crown-rump length are used to develop an aging scheme based on comparisons with the ostrich and the chicken. The ostrich model and chicken model create age predictions for the unknown aged kiwi embryos. One kiwi embryo was of known age and both models gave identical predictions for this marker embryo, but gave differing predictions for all other kiwi embryos. Using captive-reared kiwi chicks, I characterise hindlimb, bill and bodyweight growth from the time of hatch to 3 months of age. Growth patterns are very linear within this time period for all measurements but bodyweight. Female kiwi hatch with longer bills than males, but the growth of both sexes converges by the end of the 3-month period. Growth of bodyweight in the males slows earlier than in females. Bodyweight and bill length were then compared to a wild population of kiwi. Captive-reared chicks were found to hatch with shorter bills than the wild birds and to increase in bodyweight at a faster rate than wild birds. Rapid weight gain has been implicated in developmental limb deformities in other precocial and long-legged birds and has the potential to produce similar results in captive kiwi. I further studied the movement of the hindlimb during locomotion in two adults and one juvenile kiwi by filming them while they were walking on a treadmill. Kinematic parameters were measured from the video recordings and compared to overground parameters from another study. Similarity between the treadmill and overground locomotor parameters validates the use of a treadmill in studying kiwi locomotion. None of the birds achieved the theoretical transition from a walk to a run at a duty factor of 0.5. After normalising for size, the juvenile showed a longer stride length and lower stride frequency with increasing speed than the adults. Lateral head oscillations were observed during the stride cycle, which I propose having a sensory function as well as a biomechanical one.