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Item Dares in the virtual : the construction of social media challenges : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023-12-30) Nazari, VictoriaSocial Media Challenges (SMC), which are structured activities completed by participants with the engagement posted to social media, have resulted in injury and even death. Conceptualised as a social phenomenon, SMC involve a range of stakeholders, including participants, consumers, journalists and researchers. This article-based thesis explores how different stakeholders construct dangerous SMC and what the implications of these constructions are for participants. News reports, academic material, and YouTube comments were analysed using thematic discourse analysis grounded in a social constructionist paradigm. A qualitative systematic review and evidence synthesis was used to critically explore the existing research on dangerous SMC. The review indicates SMC to be a relatively understudied, complex, and dynamic phenomenon. Yet explanations for participation tend to be developmental, psychological, and individualistic, imposing a range of common, acontextual explanations for youth behaviour. The subsequent three analysis chapters consider constructions of risk, participants, reasons for participation, and attributions of responsibility. The referencing of SMC as ‘challenges’ and as forms of fun and entertainment are portrayed as misleading by some stakeholders. Instead, the danger involved in participation is emphasized. Dangerous SMC are constructed by most stakeholders as an undesirable youth activity demanding intervention and prevention. Risk, however, is predominantly understood as involving physical harm with emotional consequences seldom being addressed. Participants are portrayed in diverse ways; as asinine inferior specimens deserving harm, as neurologically immature, as psychologically vulnerable, or as competitive fun-seekers. Self-identified participants, in contrast, speak of forced participation and of participation utilised as a coping strategy. A range of groups are identified as responsible for addressing risk, including social media companies, parents, and participants themselves. Attempts to control participation, such as the use of age restrictions are demonstrated to be by passable. Largely absent from discourse around risky SMC are the larger structural and contextual issues, which draw attention to dynamics specific to social media platforms and the financial investment of companies in SMC proliferation. There is a silence expressed in the form of ineffective and limited interventions that externalise responsibility onto individual participants and their families.Item Exploring the use of social media and messaging apps to buy and sell drugs in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Health, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) van der Sanden, RobinIntroduction: The use of social media and messaging apps to facilitate drug trading has been increasing in recent years. This thesis presents the first exploration of social media drug markets in New Zealand. Methods: Initial statistical analysis of New Zealand Drug Trends Survey data (N=23,500) was complemented by thematic analysis of anonymous semi-structured messaging app-based interviews (N=33) with people who purchased and/or sold drugs via social media. Additional observational data was collected on Discord drug servers (N=7). Qualitative data were analysed using an interdisciplinary theoretical framework drawing on concepts from drug market and drug use studies as well as communications and social media scholarship. Findings: Survey modelling indicated that younger age groups (16<20 years) were most likely to purchase drugs via social media. Social media drug purchasing was also associated with a greater likelihood of transacting with a commercial seller type. These patterns indicate potential for young people to engage with higher-risk commercial local drug markets. This was evidenced in interview and observational data on “lower tier” Discord drug servers, where members often contended with ‘fake’ drugs and robbery. However, interview data showed not all social media and messaging apps facilitated the same types of digital drug market dynamics. Encrypted messaging apps were often linked to trusted commercial sellers, while ‘low security’ options like Messenger and Snapchat were often used in contexts of social supply due to their association with pre-existing friendships. The latter dynamic could enable young people to extend many of the risk reducing benefits of social supply. Many interviewees reported low concern for being caught by police as part of social media drug trades, but continued to engage in digital risk management behaviours aimed at reducing their potential for exposure to others, including the police, on social media. Conclusions: The incorporation of diverse social media and apps in harm reduction strategies to reach different groups is recommended. However, the convenience of social media drug access and potential for increased drug market harm add to the case for substantial drug policy changes in New Zealand, including changes to prioritise decriminalisation and non-punitive responses to drug use and low-level drug supply behaviours.Item YouTube's modulatory apparatus : young children's participation in YouTube's political economy : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Media Studies, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Bastos Mareschi Aggio, AmandaYouTube is a favoured digital destination for young children between five and six years old. In contrast to accounts that celebrate YouTube as an empowering and democratising platform, this research project examines young children’s interactions with YouTube using political economic and biopolitical approaches which situate children’s participation in the platform as unpaid and exploited labour. The thesis employs thematic analysis drawing on 47 interviews with young children, their parents, and teachers, alongside observations of young children’s usage of YouTube. The key findings are organised around the themes of happiness, attention, popularity and control, which unpack and question notions of digital labour, biopower and the attention economy in relation to the functioning of YouTube and its impact on young children’s lives. Within this analysis I develop the concept of the YouTube’s Modulatory Apparatus (YTMA), a strategic formation composed of the interplay of YouTube’s technical components and the platform’s commercial rationales. My findings suggest children’s feelings, behaviour and subjectivities are influenced by a trustful, intimate and emotional rapport established between young children and the YTMA. The analysis of participants’ accounts of YouTube highlights narratives that can suggest YouTube’s commercial strategies or justify practices of and through its platform.Item Instagram vs. reality : risk factors that make an adolescent more vulnerable to engage in an upwards social comparison on Instagram, resulting in poorer mental health : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Gifford, NicoleAim: For the past two decades researchers have been trying to understand how social media is affecting an individual’s mental health, however, social media platforms are rapidly changing, and new social media platforms are being developed and integrated into an adolescent’s life at a rapid rate. Therefore, research is quickly becoming outdated with a significant lag between the literature and social media existing. Instagram is an increasingly popular photo sharing social media application that offers individuals the opportunity to post photos of their lives. A consequence of Instagram being photo based is that users often apply impression management strategies, so that only the best parts of their life are presented. This creates a ripe environment for upwards social comparisons to occur, as the Instagram user compares their realities to the unrealistic images presented on Instagram. In particular, adolescents may be at risk of engaging in upwards social comparisons on Instagram, as they are the largest consumers of social media, and they are at a developmental period where social comparisons are crucial for constructing one’s identity and navigating the social world. However, little is known about how the positively skewed Instagram environment is impacting an adolescent’s mental health, which is concerning given the poor adolescent mental health statistics in New Zealand. Preliminary research from Instagram and other social media platforms, suggests that when individuals engage in upwards social comparisons on social media, it can lead to psychological distress. However, research has also suggested a poor get poorer effect is occurring, meaning only individuals who have certain vulnerability factors are at risk of engaging in an upwards social comparison, and thus experiencing the adverse psychological outcomes. Therefore, scholars have called for research to identify these vulnerability factors to enable a more nuanced understanding to be established. The aim of the current study was to focus on what vulnerability factors make an adolescent at risk of engaging in an upwards social comparison on Instagram, and subsequently experience depression and worry symptoms. The vulnerability factors that were of interest include: self-esteem, social comparison orientation, self-concept clarity, passive Instagram use, intensity of Instagram use and gender. This research hopes to provide mental health professionals with information regarding modern triggers that may be contributing to the high prevalence of youth depression and anxiety disorders, in order to guide prevention measures and interventions. Method: 853 adolescents in Auckland, New Zealand, between the ages of 13 and 19 years old completed an online questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of standardised scales to measure the constructs of interest, demographic questions and questions regarding Instagram use. Structural Equation Modelling was then utilised to test the hypotheses using a mediation model and a moderated mediation model, to determine whether the data corresponded well to the hypothesised models. Results: The results offered evidence that supported the poor get poorer effect for personality factors only. As it was identified that adolescents who have the personality traits of: a tendency to compare their abilities with others and have a low self-concept clarity are more likely to engage in an upwards social comparison on Instagram, resulting in greater depression and worry symptoms. The Instagram usage variables of: passive Instagram use and using Instagram intensely were not identified as risk factors for engaging in an upwards social comparison on Instagram. When looking at the gender effects it was identified that vulnerable females experienced more dire outcomes than males, as comparing ones’ abilities with others was only a risk factor for females and low self-concept clarity was a greater risk factor for females than males. Conclusion: The current study supported the idea that the false positive impressions displayed on Instagram can be detrimental for some adolescents’ psychological wellbeing and could possibly be contributing to New Zealand’s poor adolescent mental health statistics. The current study highlights the negative psychological impact that Instagram can have on an adolescent’s mental health, when they compare their realities to the positively skewed environment. This is concerning as social media is becoming deeply embedded into many adolescents’ lives. Therefore, this research prompts future research to further identify adolescents who are considered at risk so public health messages and interventions can be targeted towards these individuals.Item Identity construction by Aotearoa/New Zealand entrepreneurial professionals on LinkedIn : a tensional approach : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Organisational Communication at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Barnett, Sandra JaneThis study explores if, and how, the business social media site, LinkedIn, is providing for Aotearoa/New Zealand entrepreneurial professionals an alternative site for the construction of identity. The two foci of this study are; firstly, a shift to where we increasingly live our lives, the world of social media; and secondly, the tensions that this shift creates for identity and identity construction, or the basic human need to know ‘who we are’ and ‘how we fit in the social world’. The study began with the observation of family, friends and acquaintances, who had taken up self-employment, and were becoming involved in a virtual world of work-related social media through LinkedIn. The researcher’s interest was in if, and how, this virtual world acts as a site for construction of this new work identity, for an entrepreneur or small-business person. The definition of this identity was widened to include ‘professional’ when participants in the study repeatedly referred to themselves as ‘professionals’; thus, the study became a study of a hybrid identity, i.e. the entrepreneurial professional. The specific group identified was Aotearoa/New Zealand entrepreneurial professionals who engaged on LinkedIn. This research therefore is boundary spanning in that it spans the disciplines of: organisational communication and new forms of organisation; ICT and social media use; identity and identity construction, entrepreneurial, professional and digital; and globalisation, by juxtaposing the globalising effect of social media with local discourse. The research approach was from a social/constructionist paradigm, utilising a qualitative methodology. This methodology was considered appropriate as it emphasises an inductive relationship between theory and research that is consistent with the assumptions of the interpretive/ constructionist paradigm, by foregrounding the ways in which individuals interpret their social world, and embodying a view of social reality that is constantly shifting and emergent (Tracy, 2013). As this was an exploratory interpretive study, the researcher was concerned not to predict or pre-empt the findings. Accordingly, the exploration of the participants’ experience on LinkedIn was not organised around predicted or possible themes, but three interrelated communicative processes on LinkedIn identified by Putnam, Phillips, & Chapman, (1996) as three metaphors of communication itself. These were; ‘engagement’ in general terms, with an emphasis on the participants’ engaging in and making sense of the context of social media, secondly, ‘connecting’ or ‘networking,’ and thirdly, ‘interacting’. All three align with an overarching constructionist approach, but each highlight certain features that other two perspectives neglected and provide important and interrelated insights into identity construction on LinkedIn. Twenty-five in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with those who responded to a request, on NZ SME groups on LinkedIn, to be participants. The interview transcripts analysed through thematic analysis. In the process of analysis, tensions, contradictions and paradoxes emerged as a dominant concern. Tensions, such as identity tensions, have long been identified a part of organisational experience (Trethewey & Ashcraft, 2004), and a growing body of literature posits that irrationality is a normal condition of organisational life, and is reflected in the tensions evident in the discourses around the construction of identity in organisations (C. A. Clarke, Brown, & Hailey, 2009; Larson & Gill, 2017; Tracy & Trethewey, 2005; Trethewey & Ashcraft, 2004).These tensions have increased as work increasingly moves to alternative or “less predictable settings of organizing”(Cheney & Ashcraft, 2007, p. 161). The participants’ discourses revealed evidence that LinkedIn was in fact being utilised as a necessary, and for many a normal, site for the construction of entrepreneurial professional identity, yet one fraught with tensions. The identified tensions were complex and interrelated and were interpreted through the analysis as occurring in different levels and dimensions. Tensions at the first level were: two tensions around engagement in the virtual context of identity construction, four tensions around networking and making connections, and finally, five identity construction tensions around interacting and relationship-building on LinkedIn. Further interpretation of these tensions indicated underlying and overlaying tensions, or meta tensions, woven through the participants’ discourses in two dimensions One dimension identifies the tensions specific to the contexts of LinkedIn, Aotearoa/ New Zealand, and entrepreneurial professionals. This dimension of analysis accords with the advice of Cheney and Ashcraft (2007) to pay “particular sensitivity to institutional and contextual variation” (p.161) when researching identity construction in unpredictable organisational settings. The second dimension of analysis identified meta-tensions or overlaying tensional themes around identity work in organisations, that have taken on a different emphasis and character when experienced in the LinkedIn context. These tensions in two dimensions are presented as an integrated framework of identity construction tensions. For each individual these tensions will intersect at different points, illustrating that identity resides not in the person themselves, but in the context, in the broadest sense, in which they engage. The study makes several contributions. Firstly, it identifies the tensions inherent in engaging in LinkedIn and constructing a digital identity there. Secondly, it provides evidence that LinkedIn has, in fact, become, or at least was in the process of becoming, an alternative organisational site, and thus a site for organisational identity construction. Thirdly, it presents in a multi-level and two-dimensional framework for analysis of identity construction in this context. In one dimension it suggests that identity construction on LinkedIn needs to be understood, in the context of personal work situation of the individual, of a local yet global site of communication, and in the context the unique features of a virtual social world. In another dimension, the identity construction can be understood as the tensions likely in an organisational setting. Lastly it suggests utilising the lenses of three different metaphors of communication to explore communication on LinkedIn, engagement, networking, and interaction, and to analyse identity construction on LinkedIn. The study concludes with a discussion of how an understanding of managing these tensions can be utilised in tertiary education courses and to inform small business owners about LinkedIn use.Item Kiwi circle : a social platform connecting Chinese international students with local New Zealanders : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of Design, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Yu, LiangIn the past 25 years, international education has grown to become New Zealand’s fourth largest export industry, generating around 5.1 billion dollars to its economy (New Zealand Education, 2018). While Chinese students comprise the largest proportion of consumers within this sector, research indicates that Chinese international students in New Zealand are less satisfied than students from all other countries. This research proposes to design an online social platform to facilitate connections between these Chinese international students and local New Zealanders, in order to assist them in adjusting to studying and living in New Zealand. Furthermore, the platform would provide a channel for local New Zealanders who are interested in the Chinese culture to learn about and interact with it through contact with Chinese students. This research project aims to add value to New Zealand’s international education industry, by improving the overall quality of international students’ experience.Item New imaginaries of war : how Hamas and the Islamic State advance their political objectives on a virtual battlefield : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy (College of Humanities and Social Sciences) at Massey University, Albany Campus, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Mold, Francesca AnnemarieThis thesis argues that Hamas and the Islamic State, two non-state armed groups located in the Middle East, each carefully calibrate their own war-fighting activities with their communications approaches in order to achieve their respective political objectives. Drawing on scholarship focusing on non-state armed groups and political communication, as well as other secondary sources such as specialist journalism, the thesis critically analyses online communications material distributed by Hamas and the Islamic State through official and affiliated websites, digital publications, YouTube clips, tweets, and other social media platforms. While there is a striking degree of conformity between the sophisticated, comprehensive, and disciplined communications approaches used by these two groups, the thesis argues that key differences during especially intense periods of conflict — specifically, between June and October 2014 — reflect the divergent ways in which Hamas endorses, and the Islamic State disrupts, the prevailing world order as each pursues their own cause. It also notes that much of the recent scholarship highlighting the use of social media by non-state armed groups overestimates the impact of the virtual world on the actions of their followers in particular and attempts to influence the hearts and minds of a global audience more broadly.Item Is it #gramworthy? : an investigation of self-concept clarity, social media and body related issues and how this relates to teenage self presentation on Instagram : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Psychology, Massey University(Massey University, 2017) Stafford-Bush, TeiganThe media/body image relationship has been studied extensively for the better part of a decade. However, with the rise of social media in the last five years, it is necessary to consider body image variables in the context of social media. The relationships between self-concept clarity, social comparison and social physique anxiety have not been extensively examined in relation to adolescent female body image. Some of these factors have been examined intensively in relation to body image, however there has been little exploration into the impact of individual difference variables such as the self-concept and how this may influence body image in adolescent girls as well as how it may influence self-presentation online (Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz & Lavallee, 1996, Krayer, Ingledew & Iphofen, 2008 & Vartanian, 2009). A group of 12 adolescent girls participated in this research. Data was collected over a 16-week period, with questionnaires being administered online through direct links between two social media sites. The questionnaires consisted of demographic information, and were assessing Instagram activity, self-concept clarity, social comparison, social physique anxiety. A content analysis followed the questionnaire phase and examined the online profile content of participants in terms of photo composition, features, makeup, clothing and feedback. All measures were psychometrically evaluated and generated respectable levels of internal consistency and reliability. Correlational analyses established relationships between self-concept clarity and impression management, and between self-concept clarity, self-enhancement and self-deception. This suggested that a higher level of self-concept clarity among adolescent females corresponded to a greater sense of entitlement and narcissistic behaviour on their online profiles. Limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed.Item The rise of social ereading : interactive ebook platforms and the development of online reading communities : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2016) Pawley, Jessica LeighEbooks have caused a revolution in how people read fiction. Ereading devices and apps now integrate interactive features which have led to the development of digital reading communities populated by millions of readers from around the world, with a resurgence of social reading practices in new forms. Two of the biggest social reading communities in existence today are hosted by Amazon’s Kindle and Wattpad. This thesis offers an analysis of how these platforms’ readers are using the interactive technology within the pages of their ebooks to participate in these online reading communities. Original research into popular texts on Wattpad reveals that while only a small percentage of users are actively engaging with the ebooks and other readers during the process of reading, all active and passive interactions have a significant influence on the reading experience. Thus, the infrastructure of such communities ‘rewards’ serialised books which encourage higher levels of reader interactivity with greater recognition within the community, but this reward is short-lived. The application of Genette’s paratextual theory to the interactive features of these ereading platforms reveals new processes of authorisation and readers-as-writers. New paths for the evolution of digital paratextual theory see paratexts developing from ‘thresholds’ into ‘vectors’. The statistical notations of reader interactions are now informational paratexts attached to each ebook, and these online reading communities may be considered paratexts themselves, operating through the new paratextual phenomenon of digital marginalia. Furthermore, the existence of these reading communities on free platforms such as Wattpad is supported by commercial paratexts found within the ebook pages. These new paratexts are having a significant impact on social ereading and reading communities - such as how they operate and judge the 'value’ of ebooks - but historical precedents suggest these paratexts will be readily accepted by most readers, leading to an increase in the incidence and influence of such digital paratexts. These new interactive technologies and paratexts will potentially lead to significant changes in how fiction is read. Exactly how these technologies may develop, and how public, industrial, and academic stakeholders might take advantage of these opportunities, requires further research.Item Knowledge and learning in a service context : sensemaking in an online community of hair stylists : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Management at Massey University at Auckland, Albany Campus(Massey University, 2013) Fachira, IraLittle research is directly concerned with knowledge and learning in the service context, especially with how frontline service personnel learn to deal with the technical and social aspects of service encounters. This thesis aims to explore knowledge and learning in the service context by investigating how frontline personnel make sense of their workplace experiences in an online community of practice. This thesis uses Goffman‘s (1959) dramaturgical metaphor concepts to look at service encounters as similar to a theatre. Lave and Wenger‘s (1991) situated learning paradigm is used as an interpretive lens to examine learning as the development of practice and identities through participation in a community of practice. This research presents a qualitative study of a single case: an online community of hair stylists called Hair Pro Forum. Data was collected from the Forum‘s online discussions stored in the community‘s archive. Discussion threads are characterised by storytelling and collective interpretation of workplace events. There are two forms of data in this study: discussion strings and stories. The primary data for this study was 31 strings and 29 stories. Data was examined using thematic analysis. Knowledge and learning in the service context was analysed using Weickian (1995) ideas about collective and individual sensemaking activities. Gabriel‘s (1995) notion of =story-work‘ enabled sense to be made of hairstylists‘ sensemaking activities. Results of the study indicated that knowledge in the service context was constructed through narrative sensemaking, conducted online through discussion. Hair stylists created meaning by sharing stories about a service encounter as a specific event, consisting of technical and social interaction approaches suitable for the particular situation.Findings are that the initial stories of the hairstylists are posted as possible interpretations of an event, and this enables the community to respond and make collective sense of the event. Sensemaking activities enable hairstylists to gain deeper understandings of the significance of their actions in light of the flux of events in the workplace. Narrative performance invites collective interpretation, which enables learning, which in turn assists the construction of professional identity. This study provides an exemplar of how sensemaking and storytelling in an online community can help develop learning and professional identity. Further, the study shows how the activity of learning about customers is social, on-going and constantly being interpreted. The study also provides empirical evidence that knowledge about the service encounter is not static but is continuously generated.