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    An exploration of factors that have facilitated and constrained access, adoption and availability of mind-body therapies as adjunctive interventions to treat trauma-related conditions in Aotearoa, New Zealand : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University - Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa, Albany, Aotearoa New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2025-06-29) Standing, Meredith
    This qualitative study explores factors that facilitate and constrain the use of mind-body interventions to treat trauma-related conditions in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ). The phenomenon explored references mind-body therapies as an adjunctive treatment option with a focus on trauma-sensitive yoga. This study is intended to examine mind-body interventions as a complementary treatment approach and augmentation of interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapies and other validated, evidence-based approaches to treating trauma-related conditions. There is a significant body of literature that supports the use of talk therapies, such as cognitive behavioural therapy, to treat symptoms associated with trauma-related mental health conditions. Recent research has revealed that in many cases, trauma cannot be resolved through interventions that utilise talk therapies alone, as trauma, according to some theorists, is located not only in the core of the brain but also within the body. A practical treatment approach to mitigate individual experiences of trauma is to integrate Western psychological talk therapy approaches with those that focus on calming the nervous system, such as trauma-sensitive yoga, romiromi, mindfulness, and somatic experiencing. The current study highlights factors across the social system that have facilitated and constrained the access, adoption, and availability of mind-body therapies as complementary approaches for treating trauma-related conditions in the NZ context. Findings in the current study highlight that in the NZ context, few factors have facilitated access, adoption and availability of mind-body therapies as adjunctive interventions to treat trauma-related mental health conditions. A more significant number of factors, it appears, have constrained access, adoption and availability of mind-body therapies. Findings illuminate an overall positive attitude toward the utility of mind-body therapies as adjunctive treatments for trauma-related conditions, which highlights the potential for greater use of such interventions in the NZ setting.
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    Buffering and facilitative factors for posttraumatic stress and flourishing among New Zealand Defence Force personnel : a longitudinal study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024-11-01) Bryson (Allen), Daniel
    Substantial heterogeneity exists in individual responses to trauma. Reactions to operational deployments by service personnel appear to be no exception. The present research has sought to explore the links that potentially traumatic deployment experiences (PTDEs) have with posttraumatic stress (PTS) and flourishing. Further, the impacts of adaptive health behaviours (physical activity, nutrition, and sleep) and social support (from close others or from military leadership) upon the relationships that PTDEs have with PTS and flourishing were explored. Surveys were conducted 3 years apart with 313 New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) postdeployment personnel and reports were analysed. A positive relationship was found between PTDEs and PTS, and a nonsignificant relationship between PTDEs and flourishing. Significant associations were also found between 1) adaptive health behaviours, social support, and leadership support, and 2) PTS and flourishing, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Mixed support was found for the moderating effects of social support and adaptive health behaviours on the relationships that PTDEs had with PTS and flourishing. Finally, PTS was found to moderate the relationship between PTDEs and flourishing. Conclusions on how the present findings converge and build upon past research, and the unique contributions of leadership support, as well as the effects of PTS on the relationship between PTDEs with flourishing, are discussed.
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    The impact of cumulative trauma and self-regulation on posttraumatic stress symptoms, depression, and suicidal ideation in a sample of New Zealand firefighters : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Bertram, Jeannette
    This thesis presents a research study that aimed to explore the levels of psychological distress in a sample of New Zealand (NZ) firefighters. While there is a growing body of literature that recognizes the importance of first responders’ psychological distress, there is still a paucity of research, especially on firefighters and in particular firefighters in NZ. A thorough search of literature did not reveal any quantitative research on NZ firefighters and factors contributing to and alleviating psychological distress. This study aimed to build on previous international findings and examine the presence of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), depression, and suicidal ideation (SI) in a sample of NZ firefighters, as well as investigate the impact of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and self-regulation on this presence. First, a scoping review was undertaken of the existing evidence of the precursors to SI in firefighters. A questionnaire was developed incorporating these factors. Then, data was collected from 220 NZ firefighters through an online survey. As predicted, PTSS, depression, and SI were found to be significantly higher in NZ firefighters than in the general population. While career firefighters were found to be exposed to significantly higher cumulative trauma exposure than volunteer firefighters, no significant differences were found in the levels of psychological distress between the two groups. PTSS and depression showed a significantly positive relationship with SI. Multiple significant positive correlations were found between psychological distress and demographic and occupational characteristics. Lastly, better self-regulation skills were found to be associated with less psychological distress and moderated the relationship between cumulative trauma exposure and psychological distress.
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    The effects of received social support on posttraumatic stress symptoms and social adjustment of New Zealand and Philippine emergency responders : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Guilaran, Johnrev Barello
    Emergency response work is associated with a wide range of psychological outcomes. One of the most commonly observed psychological consequences is posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). In addition, traumatic exposure of these types are also seen to affect social adjustment, which may take the form of changes in satisfaction with social relationships and performance of social and occupational roles. In these highly stressful conditions, social support, behaviours and social interactions that provide actual assistance and embed people in loving and caring social networks (Hobfoll & Stokes, 1988), has been shown to be associated with favourable consequences. This research was conducted to test the effects of social support on PTSS and social adjustment in emergency responders – those who are mandated to protect and preserve life, property, and the environment (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2010) in the aftermath of emergencies and disasters. This thesis specifically focusses on received social support, which is the situational-environmental facet of social support. The first two manuscripts are meta-analyses on the associations of social support on psychological outcomes, to chart the topography of research in the area. Manuscript One is a systematic review and meta-analysis on the associations of social support on various psychological outcomes in emergency responders working in disasters. Manuscript Two is a meta-analysis on the influence of social support on posttraumatic stress symptoms in emergency responders, in general. In both meta-analyses, differential effects of social support were found, but there was a domination of studies on perceived social support and a scarcity of literature on received social support. Manuscripts Three through Five, which cover the results, then focussed on the association of received social support in 223 emergency responders from New Zealand (n = 195) and the Philippines (n = 28). Manuscript Three tested the main and moderating effects of received social support on PTSS while Manuscript Four tested its effect on social adjustment. For both studies, the effects of the different sources (i.e., family, peers, supervisor) and forms (i.e., emotional, tangible, informational) of received social support were also tested. Furthermore, to understand the protective assistance process between received and perceived social support, Manuscript Five tested the mediating effects of social support effectiveness and negative consequences on the relationship between received and perceived social support. The results of these studies highlight three key points. First, received social support is consistently shown to have main effects on PTSS and social adjustment. Second, reverse buffering effects were observed only in received supervisor support on PTSS. Third, support effectiveness and negative consequences do not mediate the link between received and perceived support in emergency responders. These findings suggest the limits of the effectiveness of social support on psychological outcomes, but at the same time, also suggest the potential of this naturally-occurring intervention element to enhance positive outcomes.
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    Posttraumatic stress and peritraumatic dissociation in women who have experienced domestic violence : a thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Miller, Frances Claire
    The aim of the present study was to examine the prevalence of PTSD symptoms in women who have experienced domestic violence. In addition, the relationship between PTSD and dissociation at the time of trauma (peritraumatic dissociation) was investigated. A community sample of 22 women who have experienced domestic violence completed a mailed self-report questionnaire. The following variables were assessed: frequency of physical and psychological abuse, general psychopathology, exposure to other traumatic experiences, peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD symptoms. As hypothesised, a significant proportion of women in the sample (32%) were classified as PTSD cases. The results of the study support previous research findings that have shown a positive relationship between current PTSD symptoms and chronicity of the abuse. A significant relationship was also found between peritraumatic dissociative experiences at the time of the abusive relationship and current PTSD symptoms and general psychopathology. Women classified as PTSD cases reported significantly higher rates of peritraumatic dissociative experiences than those classified as non-PTSD cases. The results of this investigation suggest that future research is needed to examine the association between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD symptomatology in this population group.
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    The interplay of job stress and post-traumatic stress disorder in the context of terrorism, and its effects on employee outcomes : the roles of individual and organisational resources : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) Junaid, Fatima Ali
    Terrorism is a scourge which has now spread across the globe. The events of the last few years in London, Paris, and other cities around the world highlight the fact that acts of terrorism cause deep trauma to those exposed to them. However, for some countries such as Pakistan, terrorism is an everyday reality. Living under on-going terrorism can be extremely stressful for employees, in that they have to deal with continuous risk in addition to the common stressors of professional and personal life. To date, however, there has been scant research into this phenomenon. This study was thus undertaken with two main objectives: 1) to understand the interplay between work stress and that caused by terrorism and its implications for employee outcomes; and 2) to determine whether personal and organisational resources such as psychological capital and perceived organisational support could help explain the influences of these stressors. Pakistan was the setting for this research, as it has suffered from on-going terrorism for more than a decade, with nearly 50,000 civilians killed between 2003-2014 .I have personally experienced on-going terrorism and its associated loss of life. The drive to understand the effects of this context was thus deeply felt and meaningful on a personal level. This research was challenging in many aspects, and I faced obstacles different to those presented by general management research, including conducting a study in a country where danger to life from terrorism was a real possibility. Aside from being emotionally taxing, the investigation involved ethical issues around the additional stress and trauma that could arise from the inquiry. Notwithstanding this, gaps in the literature and the practical need for the study could not be ignored. Drawing on conservation of resources theory, a theoretical framework was developed. This suggested that if employees are stressed, they are likely to feel resource depletion. The source of stress could be caused by their job and/or terrorism. The constant nature of terrorism, however, would likely further hinder employees from gaining psychological strength. For job stress, a challenge and hindrance stressors framework was used, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used as a lens through which to understand terrorism stress. Next, using positive psychology and organisational support theory, it was argued that viewing/ approaching/ utilising psychological capital as a psychological resource, and perceived organisational support as an organisation-based support resource may help to reduce the toll of the stressors on employees. This thesis comprises three studies and three data sets. First, it explored through a qualitative study the stressors of a job and terrorism, and their influence on employee outcomes, and determined the roles of personal and organisational resources. Next, a quantitative study was conducted to test some of these relationships. The first study had highlighted that there was a need to develop a contextual measure which required testing before conducting the final study. Study One was based on the limited existing literature, and involved semi- structured interviews with 15 human resources (HR)/line managers. It aimed to gain knowledge about the influence of job and terrorism stress on employee outcomes, and the role of resources in helping reduce/explain the detrimental consequences. Thematic analyses highlighted several themes which were highly embedded in the context of on-going terrorism. The main themes concerned job stress, terrorism stress, organisational support in the context of terrorism, and employee outcomes of stressors of job and terrorism. Study One pointed out that the population at large was exposed to terrorist incidents, had suffered losses, and was likely to be traumatized. It also indicated that the organisational support needed by employees in the context of on-going terrorism was distinctly different than that which is conventionally observed in the literature as perceived organisational support (POS). For example, employees in the terrorism context wanted organisations to provide physical security such as armed guards with bullet proof jackets. There was no existing instrument that could be used to specifically measure this. The second study was informed by the first and focused on developing a measure for the contextual POS; I called it Security-POS. This study had a sample of 146 Pakistani employees and used factor analysis. It confirmed that Security-POS is distinct from POS. Mediation analysis confirmed that Security-POS enhances POS, which in turn positively influences employee outcomes and well-being. Drawing on the findings of the two studies, the third and final study was developed. The survey for this study was based on 416 Pakistani employees. The studies conjointly found that job stressors and PTSD collectively had more dire effects on employee behaviours than did each stressor separately. PTSD itself was higher than any other comparable samples such as those from post 9/11 or Israeli populations. In contrast to the majority of extant research findings, challenge stressors were often not recognised as a challenge, and consequently became another burden for employees. More importantly, hindrance stressors were identified as being the most detrimental of all the stressors. Both POS and Security-related contextual POS helped in moderating the adverse effects of the stressor. Psychological capital also mediated and reduced the harmful effects of the stressors and PTSD. This is constructed in the form of a ‘By Publication’ thesis wherein the most significant part of the thesis is presented in the form of stand-alone, but linked journal articles. Chapters 1 and 2 introduce the study and review the literature respectively, while Chapter 3 outlines the overall methodology of the research. Chapters 4 to 8 contain the five research articles (manuscripts). These chapters present one article or manuscript each as a complete, stand-alone piece, but collectively, are linked and based on the overall study. A brief outline of these five journal articles or manuscripts can be found below. Chapter 9 then provides an overall discussion of the study, its limitations, contributions and implications, and finally, a concluding section. This study contributes in general to the literature of management science, and in particular to the areas of job stress and trauma, and even more specifically, to the development of conservation of resources theory, positive psychology, and organisational support theory. It was conducted in areas that were far flung and hard hit by terrorism. It presented voices which are otherwise not heard, and has implications for the well-being of the individual employees working in, and for organisations located in, the terrorism- afflicted area. However, beyond Pakistan and other terrorism-afflicted countries, this study has wider implications for international organisations and communities. According to the United Nations (2016), the number of international migrants has grown faster than the world’s population, reaching 244 million in 2015, a 41% increase since 2000. A large number of people continue to flee unsafe environments, not only as refugees, but also as expatriates, students and skilled migrants. These individuals may not always be aware of the burdens of the stress and trauma that accompanies them, and nor may their new employment organisations and host countries. For the well-being of the workforce in various settings, it is thus critical that the effects of terrorism on employees and their organisations become better understood.
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    Measuring traumatic stressors : an investigation into police perceptions of traumatic incidents : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1997) McDowell, Sally A
    Traumatic experiences are an inherent part of many aspects of police work. Due to the personal and organisational costs they incur their impact is of growing concern to the New Zealand police. Recent research has indicated that reactivity is less a function of the type of event that officers' encounter and more a function of the event characteristics which officers are exposed to. The present study aimed to contribute to the definition of work related traumatic stressors among police officers. Fifty-two members of the New Zealand police were interviewed to examine their individual constructions of traumatic incidents, in order to gain an understanding of the factors which influence psychological morbidity following exposure to trauma. Taking an exploratory approach, the present study employed the repertory grid method to elicit officers' personal perceptions and constructions of traumatic events. Principal components analysis with varimax rotation led to the extraction and interpretation of six factors underlying police officers' descriptions of event characteristics: emotions, lack of control, work-related factors, training inadequacies, victim orientated, and aspects of death. The results highlighted the wide variety of incidents and event characteristics, which can be interpreted as traumatic among police officers. Despite the focus on traumatic events, the results also reflected the participants' concern with organisational and job stressors. The limitations of the research were mainly related to the small sample size and assumptions associated with the raw data.
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    An evaluation of the process impact and outcome of a debriefing programme : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Leadbetter, Sharon
    Most people will be exposed to some form of traumatic incident during their lifetime. These traumatic incidents can be devastating for those involved and could lead to long-term psychological problems. The difficulty in dealing with these traumatic incidents, and preventing occupational stress, (especially in high-risk occupations) led to the development of psychological debriefing. The evaluative literature on debriefing has produced mixed findings on its effectiveness. To date most of the literature finds debriefing to have minimal or no effect on minimising the psychological morbidity associated with critical incidents, such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). However, there are many methodological and implementation issues in the evaluative research into debriefing, which need to be addressed. The present study was intended to collect baseline data on the effectiveness of the debriefing programme at a mental health unit. The 18 participants were given a questionnaire that contained several measures examining, attitudes, knowledge and experience of debriefing, as well as measures assessing psychological and physical health, and job satisfaction. Independent samples t-tests revealed a strong significant relationship between knowledge and debriefing status. The present study revealed the importance of process and impact in the design and implementation of a debriefing programme. Future research should examine the process and impact issues raised in the present study using a larger sample size.
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    Traumatic stress reaction : cultural differences : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1998) Gillard, Matthew Jason
    Over the past forty years the domains of cross-cultural psychology and third world psychology have grown considerably. Both are now considered essential approaches for studying other cultures (Mio & Iwamasa, 1993; Pederson, 1993). Although the mental health literature on response to natural disasters has grown considerably in the past few years (Lystad, 1990) there has been limited empirical research on the interaction between culture and trauma and the role played by trauma in traumatic stress reactions (Chemtob, 1996). The object of this study was to explore the influence of cultural differences on disaster perception and traumatic stress. An exploratory study was undertaken in the Fiji Islands. This study examined traumatic stress reaction in three cultural groups: indigenous Fijians, Hindu Indians, and Muslim Indians. The study was conducted in two parts: the first, a qualitative section using open-ended questions. The questions concerned housing, support, socio-economic status, education, and overall expectations. Paton (1997) has identified some of these factors as increasing vulnerability, although not in a cultural context. The second: a quantitative section, involved the construction of a questionnaire (Appendix Eight), itself based on important issues identified by those interviewed in the first section. The purpose-built questionnaire (Expectation/Demand Questionnaire) was designed to assess both the expectations that would be placed upon people by their religious groups and the assistance they would receive from their respective religious organisations. This questionnaire was administered in conjunction with two commercial instruments designed to assess traumatic stress reaction. The results of the Expectation/Demand Questionnaire revealed a statistically significant difference between the three cultural groups in the amount of assistance they expect from their Churches, Mosques, and Temples, and the demands they expect these organisations to make of them. It was hypothesised that other factors may have contributed to the differences between the three groups, including quality of housing, location of housing, ownership of housing, socio-economic status, literacy, and locus of control. These vulnerability factors were used to construct a table (Discussion, 4.0) designed to highlight the risk levels of the three cultures.
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    PTSD and cardiac surgery : a randomised, controlled pilot study to assess the effect of a brief psychoeducational intervention : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Bethell, Fleur Louise
    Cardiac surgery can be traumatic and stressful, and as a result many people experience psychological difficulties following treatment. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is now being investigated in post-surgical populations with surprising results. Prevalence rates for PTSD following cardiac surgery range from 10% to 38%. Current knowledge regarding PTSD in post-surgical populations is limited, and many studies are concerned with risk factors and prevalence rates, and have not investigated the effects of psychological interventions. Thus, the magnitude of improvement in long-term outcomes resulting from the use of preventative interventions is unclear. With this in mind, the current study was created to investigate the effect of a brief psychoeducational intervention to prevent the symptoms of PTSD, and improve the adaptive coping behaviours of people who have survived cardiac surgery. This research question was addressed as a pilot study and utilised a randomised, controlled design that enlisted 33 participants awaiting cardiac surgery at a single site. The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated by comparing it to the standard treatment patients are currently offered upon admission to the cardiac ward. Standardised self-report measures were collected during baseline, treatment and once at two-week follow-up. Results showed that, compared to pre-treatment levels, the majority of participants who received the intervention demonstrated a reduction in PTSD symptoms and an increase in adaptive coping behaviours related to recovery after cardiac surgery. Findings are interpreted in terms of previous literature and implications are discussed according to theory, research and clinical practice. Limitations of the study are outlined and recommendations for future research are discussed. Suggestions for future research include evaluating the effectiveness of the manual in a larger, more diverse group of people, extending follow-up periods and utilising more rigorous measures. Overall, preliminary findings support the effectiveness of the Coping After Cardiac Surgery Manual in treating people who have undergone cardiac surgery.