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Item The hydrogeology of the Pourewa sub-catchment, Rangitikei, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Earth Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2020) Rees, CallumThis story begins in the geologically young and active landscapes of the lower North Island of New Zealand, positioned astride the interface between the Pacific and Australian tectonic plates. The chosen field area is located within the onland Whanganui Basin, a Late Miocene-Quaternary marine basin that has undergone uplift, inversion and fluvial incision to form spectacular river valley exposures through the basin succession. The area contains one of the most complete records of Quaternary climate change exposed onland anywhere in the world. Our journey centres on a portion of this uplifted marine basin, characterised by the highly erodible, pastorally farmed hill country of the Rangitikei. The Pourewa Stream, a tributary of the Rangitikei River provides a cross section through rural landscapes of the lower North Island. The stream’s headwaters begin in steep Taihape sheep and beef country, before transitioning into a broad valley with a gentle gradient headed for Hunterville. The lower reaches step down across extensive Late Pleistocene river terraces, providing versatile arable cropping and dairy pasture, until finally joining the Rangitikei River 6 km east of Marton. Agriculture constitutes 90% of land use in the region, placing pressure on resources required for ongoing agricultural development and production. Recent concerns surrounding the long-term sustainability and potential contamination of freshwater resources have initiated research into the regions groundwater system. Previous studies have taken a broad approach examining large-scale issues surrounding classification, allocation, management and vulnerability of groundwater resources. This study takes a different approach by examining a single sub-catchment of the Rangitikei River, with the aim of developing a conceptual hydrogeological model for the Pourewa Stream area. The proposed model is underlain by a comprehensive stratigraphic investigation of the Quaternary succession in the central Rangitikei. Geological context is provided through the development of a 1:25 000 geological map series and accompanying structural interpretation. Hydrogeochemical datasets derived from targeted in situ and laboratory based analysis provide baseline information. The conceptual hydrogeological model is applied on a wider regional scale to investigate basin history and processes of landscape formation. The project aims to support policy makers, landowners and developers in achieving sustainable management of groundwater resources by the avoidance of over exploitation and contamination.Item Accounting of nitrogen attenuation in agricultural catchments : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Earth Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Elwan, AhmedThe transport and fate of the nitrate that leaches from the root zone of farms, via groundwaters, to receiving surface waters is poorly understood, particularly for New Zealand’s agricultural catchments. Monitoring nitrate concentrations in rivers clearly demonstrates that not all of the nitrate leached across the catchment enters the river. As nitrate moves from land to receiving waters there is potential for subsurface denitrification and hence the attenuation of the nitrate flux to receiving surface waters. A good understanding of the influence of catchment characteristics on the spatial variations of nitrate attenuation is essential for targeted and effective water quality outcomes across agricultural landscapes. This thesis analysed large datasets of geographical information (land use, soils and geology) and water quality records at 20 sites in two large agricultural catchments, the Tararua and Rangitikei, which are located in the lower parts of the North Island New Zealand. The results demonstrated that the influence of land use on river soluble inorganic nitrogen (SIN) concentrations in the Tararua catchment was outweighed by other catchment characteristics such as soil type and hydrological indices. A simple approach, that is not data-intensive, was developed and applied to quantify the capacity of a catchment to attenuate nitrogen. The nitrogen attenuation factor (AFN) is a key component of this approach. AFN is defined as the average annual land use nitrogen leaching losses minus the average annual river SIN river loads, divided by the average annual land use nitrogen leaching losses. AFN was determined for 5 and 15 sub-catchments in the Rangitikei and Tararua catchments, respectively, and was found to be highly spatially variable with values ranging from 0.14 to 0.94. To assess the uncertainty associated with AFN, the uncertainty in the average annual river SIN loads was evaluated. Five load calculation methods (global mean GM, rating curve RC, ratio estimator RE, flow-stratified FS, and flow-weighted FW) and four sampling frequencies (2 days, weekly, fortnightly, and monthly) were investigated to calculate average annual river loads at one of the long-term, representative water quality monitoring sites in the study catchment. The FS method using a monthly sampling frequency resulted in the lowest bias (0.9%) for average annual river SIN loads and therefore was used in the quantification of AFN across the study catchments. A robust uncertainty analysis of AFN showed two distinct groups of sub-catchments; sub-catchments with higher (>0.7) and less uncertain nitrogen attenuation factors, and sub-catchments with lower (<0.4) and more uncertain nitrogen attenuation factors. This supports the use and applicability of AFN as a sub-catchment descriptor of the capacity of a sub-catchment to attenuate nitrogen. AFN was positively related to poorly drained soils and mudstones, and negatively related to well-drained soils and gravels in the study catchments. A novel but simple hydrogeologic-based model was developed to evaluate the potential to use soil and rock indices to predict average annual river SIN loads from different land uses in a catchment. Four different versions of the model (uniform nitrogen attenuation, variable nitrogen attenuation based on soil indices only; variable nitrogen attenuation based on rock indices only; and variable nitrogen attenuation based on both soil and rock indices) were developed. Accounting for the spatial distribution of the nitrogen attenuation capacities of both soils and rocks resulted in markedly better predictions of river SIN loads in the Tararua and Rangitikei sub-catchments. The novel findings of this thesis clearly suggest that effective and targeted measures to improve water quality at a catchment scale should account not only for land use but also for other catchment characteristics, such as the subsurface nitrogen attenuation capacity. This new knowledge will be instrumental in the future development of the models and planning tools required to reduce the detrimental impacts of agriculture, by aligning spatially intensive land use practices with high nitrogen attenuation pathways in sensitive agricultural catchments.Item Spiders as surrogate species in ecological monitoring, habitat classification and reserve selection : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2001) Coombe, Gil Michael IanThe use of invertebrates in the monitoring of terrestrial ecosystems was investigated using spiders as a focal group. In a review of previous literature, spiders were found to meet the majority of criteria required of suitable ecological indicators, including high diversity and abundance, a widespread distribution, easy sampling and sorting, relatively low random fluctuation in population sizes and community composition, a range of dispersal abilities, measurable response to habitat change and representation of other taxa. The main weaknesses of spiders as ecological indicators were the lack of taxonomic expertise and sparse knowledge of baseline biology. However, these disadvantages could be rectified and it was concluded that spiders are suitable for further investigation as ecological indicators, involving field trials and hypothesis testing. The spider communities in the litter, herb and shrub layer of eight sites representing four habitat types within a forest successional series were sampled in Pouiatoa State Forest in Northern Taranaki. There were no distinct trends in spider richness or abundance across the successional series. However, spider species and family composition both reflected the successional stage from which they were taken. Site classifications using DCA and cluster analysis were similar when using either plant or spider data. Spider communities demonstrated potential for use in habitat classification of terrestrial ecosystems. Spiders and seven other ground-active invertebrate groups were sampled with pitfall traps from fourteen forest remnants within the Rangitikei Ecological Region to test whether spiders were able to act as indicators of plant and invertebrate diversity. Within-site richness (α-diversity) of spiders was strongly correlated with that of all other invertebrates combined, but spiders were not good predictors of between-site richness (²- diversity) of all other invertebrates. Correlation between the α- and β-diversities of plants and invertebrates were low, indicating that maximising plant diversity in reserve selection might not maximise invertebrate diversity. It is recommended that ground-active invertebrates be included in surveys of potential forest reserves. Spiders are a useful surrogate group for invertebrate communities and could be more widely used in the assessment, monitoring and management of terrestrial ecosystems.Item Prioritisation of wetlands of the Rangitikei catchment : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Natural Resource Management at Massey University(Massey University, 2003) Amaranathan, UsharaniThis study aimed to prioritise wetlands of the Rangitikei Catchment. The prioritisation will enable the Manawatu-Wanganui Regional Council to apply its limited resources in an effective way to preserve the biodiversity of the wetlands of the catchment. A process was designed to achieve the project aim. The first step in the process was the establishment of two conservation goals: 1)Maintain species diversity, 2)Eliminate threats within wetlands. Secondly, the wetlands of the Rangitikei Catchment were surveyed to collect state and pressure information. 25 wetland sites were surveyed using the REWA survey method. Data collected was then analysed, first using the complementarity programme Sites V1.0. However, complementarity analysis did not achieve a clarified prioritisation of wetland sites because extreme variability was found among sites. In particular, complementarity analysis did not respond well to having two very different conservation goals of pressure and state. Therefore, 13 prioritisation criteria were employed based on elements of pressure and state. A method was devised to overcome problems of weighting criteria. True scores were converted to adjusted scores of 1 to 4 using the box and whisker division method. This method also allowed for easier replication and manipulation of data as well as clear visual representation, unlike other methods. A unique prioritisation framework was then devised which allowed multiple criteria (in this study pressure and state) to be assessed simultaneously. The framework also allowed the large amounts of data involved in the prioritisation process to be presented as a single priority ranking. The prioritisation framework is a relatively simple, repeatable and highly adaptable method. The framework does not compromise the contribution of each criterion to the overall value of the wetland. This resulted in prioritisation of the surveyed wetland sites of the Rangitikei Catchment and allowed achievement of the study's conservation goals. The box and whisker division method and prioritisation framework presented in the study are two unique methods that may be applied in future prioritisation programmes. Both methods provide simple and visual representations of the complex processes involved in the prioritisation of wetland sites and respond to multiple and opposing conservation goals. The nature of the prioritisation framework allows information to be added as it becomes available as well as accommodating the addition and expansion of conservation goals.Item Selected soil physical properties and their affects [i.e. effects] on cereal yields in the Manawatu-Rangitikei region, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Soil Science at Massey University(Massey University, 1986) Grealish, Gerard JohnThe Manawatu-Kairanga-Rangitikei region is now a major cropping district in New Zealand. Expansion and intensification has led to a need for more specific information on soil physical properties and how these properties interact with crop yield and soil management. Soil physical properties largely determine the rooting depth and available water storage capacity of a soil-crop system. Compacted subsoils (1.5-1.7 Mg/m3), low saturated hydraulic conductivity (0-10 mm/hr), and poor aeration (0-5% large pores) were the probable causes restricting root depth in the six high terrace soils (Kiwitea mottled, Marton, Tokomaru silt loams) investigated. The two river plain soils (Kairanga silt loams) gave results vhich indicated a more suitable rooting environment than the high terrace soils. Restricted rooting depth led to low (65-80mm) total available water contents (TAWC) for the high terrace soils and higher, but more variable, TAWC (80-116mm) for the Kairanga soils. A simple soil water balance model allowed soil water storage and climate to be integrated to estimate periods of moisture stress. In the year of this study (1985/86) there was a range in moisture stress days (0-27 days) dependant on soil type. However, there was no correlation between the computed number of moisture stress days and crop yield. This was due to an unusual wet spring-summer growth season. Thus other factors, probably related directly and indirectly to poor drainage and aeration, affected yield more than moisture stress. Extended to different climatic seasons, the model predicted that 25-64 moisture stress days would occur in a drier season, depending on soil type. This is predicted to cause a 40% and 20% reduction in yield due to moisture stress for the high terrace soils and a Kairanga soil respectively.Item Caledonia stern and wild : Scottish identity in Wanganui and Rangitikei 1880-1918 : presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Master of Arts degree in History at Massey University(Massey University, 1995) Annabell, Jessie MThis thesis is a tentative examination of forms of Scottish national identity in New Zealand within two institutions - the Caledonian Society and the Presbyterian Church. The reason why a small, ephemeral, secular organization is considered on the same basis as a very substantial religious institution such as the Presbyterian Church is that they both derived their character from Scotland. The time - between about 1880 and 1918 - covers a period in which conceptions of national identity were changing, both for Scots in New Zealand and for New Zealanders in general. The area - Wanganui and Rangitikei - is not considered especially Scottish when compared with Otago or Southland. When figures for Otago and Southland are removed from population calculations, however, Wanganui and Rangitikei assume a fresh significance. Proportions of Presbyterians, and proportions of Scottish-born are significantly above the average. [From Introduction.]