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    Efficacy of articaine hydrochloride for disbudding in goat kids and velvet antler removal in red deer, and novel disbudding methods for goat kids : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Venkatachalam, Dinakaran
    Painful husbandry procedures are routinely performed in farm animals all over the world. Most of these procedures can be humanely performed under local anaesthesia. Lignocaine is the most commonly used local anaesthetic in veterinary medicine. Even though lignocaine is a cheap and effective local anaesthetic, its use in goat kids and deer has been a concern. In goat kids, lignocaine has been reported to produce toxicity following cornual nerve block. In deer, the presence of lignocaine residue in the harvested velvet antlers following ring block has been a concern as one of its metabolites, 2,6-dimethylaniline (DMA) has been classified as a possible carcinogen in humans. Articaine hydrochloride is an amide-type local anaesthetic with unique pharmacological properties such as rapid hydrolysis in plasma to an inactive metabolite and high lipid solubility. It is widely used in humans for local and regional nerve blocks in dentistry. Several studies in humans suggested that articaine hydrochloride was effective and safer than lignocaine. Given concerns on the use of lignocaine in goat kids and deer, a series of studies were conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of articaine hydrochloride as an alternative to lignocaine hydrochloride for disbudding in goat kids and velvet antler removal in deer. As there is a paucity of data on the toxicity of lignocaine in goat kids, the thesis has also investigated the toxicity of lignocaine hydrochloride in goat kids. In addition, novel analgesic and disbudding techniques for goat kids were evaluated. The dose-ranging studies in goat kids suggested that doses up to 8 mg kg–1 and 7 mg kg–1 of articaine hydrochloride and lignocaine hydrochloride, respectively, can be safely used for perineural injections. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that articaine hydrochloride was rapidly hydrolysed and eliminated in goat kids. The elimination half-life of articaine (1.26 ± 0.34 hours) was determined to be shorter than the elimination half-lives of lignocaine (1.71 ± 0.51 hours) and lignocaine’s metabolite, monoethylglycinexylidide (3.19 ± 1.21 hours) in goat kids. The total dose of articaine (16.24 ± 1.79 mg kg–1) required to produce convulsions in goat kids was higher than that of lignocaine (12.31 ± 1.42 mg kg–1). The mean convulsive plasma concentrations of articaine and lignocaine were 9.90 ± 2.38 µg mL–1 and 13.59 ± 2.34 µg mL–1, respectively. Both pharmacokinetic and toxicity data indicate that articaine has a greater margin of safety than lignocaine in goat kids. Cornual nerve block (0.5 mL/site) using articaine hydrochloride (1.5%) and lignocaine hydrochloride (1%) alleviated the acute pain during disbudding in goat kids. However, both the drugs provided analgesia only for a short time which necessitates the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for postoperative analgesia. In addition, the injection of these drugs at four sites to anaesthetise both the horn buds caused stress and pain in goat kids. Therefore, it is recommended to use sedatives and NSAIDs along with local anaesthetics for disbudding goat kids. However, future studies should evaluate the safety and efficacy of this protocol for disbudding in goat kids. Similar to goat kids, articaine was rapidly hydrolysed to the inactive metabolite, articainic acid, and rapidly eliminated in red deer. A ring block around the base of the antlers using 4% articaine hydrochloride (1 mL/cm pedicle circumference) provided effective analgesia for velvet antler removal in red deer. The results of the studies in red deer suggested that articaine could be a safe and effective local anaesthetic for velvet antler removal. Residue analysis of harvested antlers using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) method revealed that the concentrations of articaine and lignocaine in the harvested velvet antlers were similar. Further studies to evaluate the safety of articaine and its metabolites are warranted in target species before recommending articaine hydrochloride as an alternative to lignocaine hydrochloride for velvet antler removal. The analgesic efficacy of methoxyflurane and a novel topical local anaesthetic formulation for disbudding in goat kids were evaluated. Both methoxyflurane and the novel topical formulation provided cutaneous analgesia but did not provide sufficient analgesia for disbudding in goat kids. Further research is required to evaluate the efficacy of these novel analgesic techniques. The efficacy of mepacrine and eugenol for disbudding in goat kids were investigated following subcutaneous injection (0.2 mL) under the horn buds. Both eugenol and mepacrine produced necrosis of horn buds in goat kids but failed to stop horn bud growth. Injection of these compounds using a needle (26 G) and syringe was painful but no pain-related behaviours were seen after the injection. Future studies should evaluate different injection volumes and different non-invasive or minimally invasive administration techniques to increase the efficacy of this novel technique. Refinement of this novel technique might provide a simple, fast, safe and effective way to stop horn bud growth in goat kids.
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    A study on some aspects of the pathogenicity, diagnosis and control of gastrointestinal nematodes in deer : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) Tapia-Escárate, Daniela Alejandra
    The most important parasites in farmed red deer are Dictyocaulus eckerti and gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN). The overall aim of these studies was to develop an understanding about GIN parasites in red deer, including their pathogenicity, diagnosis, control and the risk of cross-infection with cattle/sheep. To understand the pathogenicity of GIN, young deer were trickle infected with a mixed culture of deerorigin infective larvae (L3). The infection comprised 40% Ostertagia-type and 53% Oesophagostomum spp. L3. As a result of the high proportion of Oesophagostomum spp. L3, the animals were clinically affected with large intestinal lesions and it was not possible to investigate the effect of Ostertagia-type parasites. Oesophagostomum sikae was recognised in New Zealand for the first time in this study. A national survey of the prevalence of different GIN in deer utilised PCR-based methodology. From each of 59 deer farms around New Zealand faeces from an average of 19 deer/farm were cultured and 24 infective larvae were randomly selected and identified. The order of prevalence from high to low was Oesophagostomum. venulosum > Spiculopteragia asymmetrica > S. spiculoptera > Ostertagia leptospicularis. This illustrated the importance of abomasal nematodes in the subfamily Ostertaginae. A study was conducted to determine the ability of sheep GIN to establish in deer. The highest establishment rates were Haemonchus contortus (10.5%), Trichostrongylus axei (12.2%) and O. venulosum (5.8%). However, these were all lower than in sheep. The effectiveness of crossgrazing system between deer and sheep (DS) or cattle (DC) compared to deer grazing alone (DD) was undertaken as a replicated study at two locations over two years. The key outcomes were that DC needed fewer anthelmintic treatments and still had higher live-weight than other groups. The DD group received more treatments and still had highest nematode counts for Ostertagia-type nematodes and Dictyocaulus. The DS group received a similar number of treatments to DD and had the highest burdens of T. axei. Cross-grazing offers advantages which varied between DC and DS with regards the level of control of GIN, however, both were effective in controlling lungworm infection. Deer in all groups still required anthelmintic treatment to maintain growth rates.
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    Epidemiological investigation into abortion in farmed red deer in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Sciences at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Patel, Kandarp Khodidas
    Reproductive performance in rising two-year-old (R2) and mixed-aged (MA) adult hinds is suboptimal in farmed red deer in New Zealand due to failure to conceive, fetal loss, and perinatal and postnatal mortality. Reproductive efficiency (calves weaned/hinds mated) in the last decade has averaged 75% (Statistics New Zealand 2016). Previous studies have identified risk factors for conception/pregnancy. However, while abortions are considered rare, they have been reported at low levels in a few earlier studies, but more recently a clinical investigation reported up to 10% mid-term abortion in four herds. Hence, abortion may be going unobserved on deer farms. This epidemiological study was designed to investigate fetal wastage in farmed deer in New Zealand. The work presented in this thesis includes estimation of incidence and prevalence along with putative investigation into infectious causes based on blood, uteri and aborted fetal tissue, and analysis of farm and management risk factors based on data collected by questionnaire. It also includes the validation of an ELISA for Toxoplasma gondii which, based on recent clinical observations, was considered a likely contributor to abortion. Gold standard and Bayesian methodology showed this test to be 78.9% and 98.8% sensitive and 97.5% and 92.8% specific, respectively. Eighty-five deer farms were recruited over two-years, comprising 87 R2 and 71 MA herds and 22,130 R2 and 36,223MA hinds. The mean pregnancy rate at usual scan (Scan-1) was 82.0% (range: 7.0 - 100%) in R2 hinds and 92.6% (range: 39.8 - 100%) in MA hinds. Observations of aborting fetuses at scanning, along with a pilot study of early abortion confirms that sub-optimum pregnancy scan results are not attributable to sub-optimum conception rate alone as conventionally believed. A second pregnancy scan (Scan-2) was performed after a mean interval of 90 and 87 days from Scan-1 in a subsample of 11,005 R2 and 7,374 MA hinds, respectively, to determine fetal wastage in the 90-day between-scan (mid-term) period. Abortions were recorded in 73% and 61% of R2 and MA herds, respectively. The mean mid-term abortion rate, in herds with abortion, of 3.9% (range: 0.4 - 19.1%) in R2 was significantly higher than 2.2% (range: 0.6 - 9.1%) in MA hinds (Chisq. p=0.009). Repeatability of abortions investigated in 15 R2 (Student’s t-test p=0.15) and seven MA (Student’s t-test p=0.75) herds was poor demonstrating unpredictability between years. In a supplementary pilot study, abortions earlier than usual Scan-1 were detected in 2/3 R2 and 1/1 MA herd indicating that abortions do occur prior to mid-term. The abortion rates detected were higher than reported earlier and economically significant for many deer farmers, justifying investigation of causation. Serology and/or PCR for T. gondii, Leptospira spp., Neospora caninum, Bovine Virus Diarrhoea virus (BVD), and Cervid Herpesvirus type -1 (CvHV-1) were performed on selected samples from hinds pregnant, non-pregnant and aborting at Scan-1, aborted between scans, and aborting and pregnant at Scan-2, and fetal material as appropriate. Toxoplasma gondii sero-positive R2 hinds at Scan-2 were 1.6 times more likely to have aborted than sero-negative hinds (Chisq. p=0.03). Toxoplasma gondii sero-prevalence was positively related to herd-level abortion rates in R2 hinds (T-test p=0.02). In addition, T. gondii DNA was detected in aborting fetal tissues at Scan-1 and Scan-2 and from uteri of non-pregnant and aborting hinds at Scan-1 and aborted hinds at Scan-2. Combined, these data provide evidence that approximately 8% of abortions in R2 hinds are likely to be attributed to T. gondii. There was no evidence for Leptospira spp., N. caninum, BVD, or CvHV-1 infection played a significant role in abortion. Serology for those pathogens was not associated with mid-term abortion or non-pregnancy at Scan-1 (Leptospira spp. only). No Leptospira spp. DNA was detected in aborted fetal tissue or aborted hind uteri. N. caninum sero-prevalence was 0.6% in 348 samples analysed. Hence, further investigation was not justified. Sero-prevalence to BVD was 12.5%, and while not related to abortion, suggests a possibility of a persistently infected (PI) deer. The sero-prevalence of CvHV-1 was higher in MA than R2 hinds but unrelated to abortion (Chisq. p<0.001). The significance of Cervid Rhadinovirus type-2 (CRhV-2) DNA detected in maternal tissues is unknown. Farm, management, health, and environment autumn and winter risk factors, analysed for pregnancy (Scan-1) and having aborted by Scan-2 showed that winter hay feeding, presence of dairy cattle on farm and co-grazing of hinds with beef cattle were associated with abortion. This risk factor analysis suggests that attention to good nutrition and health, and effective grazing management reduces the risk of abortion. The observed abortion rates were higher than estimates used for power analysis at the study design stage. Therefore, despite that the number of farms able to be recruited was slightly below target, the abortion rates reported are robust. A potential limitation of this study was that the recruitment of farms could not be achieved by random selection, hence results may have been affected by volunteer bias. Further, it was necessary to adopt a cross-sectional blood sampling methodology since a longitudinal study design involving repeat sampling, while preferable, was not possible for logistical reasons due to the scale of this study on commercial farms. Overall, while a major proportion of abortions remained unexplained, this study showed that abortions, sometimes in high numbers, are occurring on deer farms. The mid-term abortion rate observed, if consistent across the industry, would result in losses of $2.10 million. If that rate was consistent throughout gestation, the loss could be up to $5.58 million. Given the magnitude of abortion rates on many properties, further research into causation is justified. However, the poor repeatability or predictability of abortion will make such research using the epidemiological approach adopted here difficult. Due to T. gondii being implicated as a cause of abortion in R2 hinds, research into developing an effective vaccine may be warranted. The research undertaken in this study effectively contributes to knowledge on reproductive inefficiency in farmed deer, providing data on the prevalence, incidence, and causation of abortion, and helping explain sub-optimum pregnancy scan results. These data contribute to understanding of BVD, N. caninum and CvHV-1 which have been little studied in farmed deer and will guide further studies to help the deer industry plan and implement measures to enhance reproductive efficiency.
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    The estimation of phenotypic and genetic parameters for liveweight traits of red deer : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1988) Rapley, Catherine Mary
    Data for this study were uplifted from Deerplan (the New Zealand deer performance recording scheme). The data consisted of 311 birth weight records from 4 herds, 2874 March weight (approximately 3 months of age) records from 28 herds and 1225 15-month weight records from 20 herds, for Red deer. Approximately half the March and 15-month weight records had an accompanying date of birth. Dam winter weight accompanied about one-third of the fawn weight records. The objectives of this study included: least squares estimation of non-genetic effects influencing birth, March and 15-month weights; estimation of heritability of these weight traits by Henderson's Method 3 and offspring-dam regression method; estimation of phenotypic and genetic correlations between these weight traits, and development of selection indices based on the estimated parameters. The non-genetic effects found to significantly influence birth weight, with the approximate percentage of total variation each controlled given in parenthesis, were: herd (12%); sex (15%); age of dam (13%), and dam winter weight (18%). The effects of year and date of birth were small and were not considered to be of practical importance. Approximately 50% of the total variation in birth weight was accounted for by these non-genetic effects. The non-genetic effects found to significantly influence March weight were: herd (11 %); year (2%); sex (13%); age of dam or dam winter weight (10%), and age at March weighing (25%). Approximately 63% of the total variation in March weight was accounted for by these non-genetic effects. The non-genetic effects found to significantly influence 15-month weight were: herd (6.0%); sex (70%); age at 15-month weighing (3%), and dam winter weight (3% ). The effect of year on 15-month weight could not be tested. Approximately 80% of the total variation in 15-month weight was accounted for by these non-genetic effects. The paternal-half sib heritability estimates of birth, March, and 15-month weights were high, 0.67 ± 0.29 (± S.E), 0.77 ± 0.15, 0.60 ± 0.22, respectively. The heritability of adjusted March weight estimated by the offspring-dam regression method was low, 0.15 ± 0.30. The phenotypic correlation estimates between the adjusted fawn weights were consistently positive with moderate to strong magnitude. These estimates were 0.49 for birth and March weight, 0.34 for birth and 15-month weight and 0.51 for March and 15-month weight. The phenotypic correlation estimates between dam winter weight in adjacent years were strongly positive (0.49 to 0.97). The genetic correlation estimates between the adjusted fawn weights were moderately to strongly positive, 0.93 ± 0.24 for birth and March weight and 0.32 ± 0.44 for March and 15-month weight. Selection indices were developed for two objectives. One was to increase venison production at 15-months of age, and the other was to increase venison production at 27 -months of age and 2 year old velvet antler weight. Due to the strongly positive correlations between liveweights, negative index weighting factors were obtained for March weight. These were considered unreasonable and indicated the need for further investigation. An economic gain per generation of $12.80 and $24.27 could be achieved for the two objectives respectively. The economic gain in the first objective was reduced to $12.53 by restricting genetic gain in birth weight to zero. There was little advantage in recording actual birth weights.
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    Velvet antler removal from red deer : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Medicine at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Flint, Pania
    Antlers are unique structures specific to deer that are cast and regrown annually. The harvest of velvet antler is a surgical procedure requiring analgesia and haemostasis. Analgesia is provided by lignocaine ring blocks around the base of the antler in adult stags or compression analgesia with a rubber (NaturOTM) ring in yearlings. Stags are often sedated with xylazine for velvet removal. This thesis covers four topics requiring refinement or further understanding: variability in local analgesia using lignocaine; the efficacy or noxiousness of NaturOTM rings; lignocaine residues in antlers; and post- xylazine stag death. In a video observational study of antler harvest on commercial velvet farms, successful analgesia was characterised by fewer “gaps” in the ring block, greater volume of lignocaine per antler, greater time taken to inject lignocaine, greater number of injections, lower stag age, and other stag factors. There was significant confounding in the data and multiple variables are likely to be important. In a series of studies investigating the use of NaturOTM rings, the rings prevented behavioural responses and partially prevented EEG responses to antler removal. On application of the NaturOTM ring, some animals demonstrated behavioural and EEG responses indicative of noxious sensation. NaturOTM rings provide analgesia during antler removal and may cause discomfort on application. It is believed that lignocaine reaches the antler via the blood stream, resulting in tissue residues. Blood flow to the antler was investigated using acrylic models, fluorescent microspheres and cineangiography. Different tourniquet types were tested to determine whether they could prevent lignocaine residues. The arterial supply to the antler is elaborate and tourniquets minimised arterial flow at tensions less than 2kg but did not prevent lignocaine residues. Occasionally, stags die within 48 hours of sedation with xylazine. In an epizoological survey, this was not related to drug or environmental factors. Reactions involved either acute respiratory distress or delayed death with severe pulmonary oedema. During observations of yearlings sedated with xylazine most demonstrated hypoxaemia that could be reversed by oxygen supplementation or yohimbine administration. This work provides indicators of how best practice in velvet antler removal may be improved.
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    Venison production from weaner Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1993) Soetrisno, Edi
    Forty four weaner red deer (Cervus elaphus) fawns (26 stags; 18 hinds) were used to investigate the effects of grazing pure red clover (Trifolium pratense) or perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)/white clover (Trifolium repens) pastures and immunisation against melatonin upon growth and venison production, with the objective of the stags attaining a minimum target slaughter liveweight (92 kg LW;>50 kg carcass) by 12 month of age. The experiment was conducted at the Deer Unit Massey University, NZ, during 1991. The animals were randomly allocated into eight treatment groups (starting on 13 March 1991), with the combination of pasture types ((pure red clover (RC) or perennial ryegrass/white clover (PRG/WC), sex (male or female) and immunisation (against melatonin or placebo only). The deer were rotationally grazed on either RC or PRG/WC pasture (feed allowances 6, 7 kg DM/h/day, respectively) during autumn and spring. During winter, all animals were combined and grazed together on PRG/WC pasture (6 kg DM/h/day feed allowance), at a pasture residual DM of 1100 kg DM/ha. The subcutaneous anti-melatonin injections were administered to the immunisation groups at birth and at weaning. Pre-grazing herbage mass for RC or PRG/WC were respectively 3568, 3706 kg DM/ha in autumn; 2726, 2150 kg DM/ha in spring; 1736 kg DM/ha in winter. Post-grazing herbage mass for RC or PRG/WC averaged at 1822, 1882, in autumn; 1705, 1334, in spring; and 1170 kg DM/ha in winter, respectively. Total nitrogen (N) and organic matter digestibility (OMD) concentration of both feed on offer (FO) and diet selected (DS) were higher in RC than PRG/WC (FO total N: 3.4 vs 3.4% DM in autumn, 4.1 vs 2.6% DM in spring; FO OMD: 77.3 vs 78.6% OM in autumn, 84.5 vs 80.3% OM in spring; DS total N: 4.2 vs 3.9 % DM in autumn, 4.7 vs 3.3% DM in spring; DS OMD: 84.2 vs 83.2% OM in autumn, 87.7 vs 82.4% OM in spring). Liveweight gain (LWG) of RC stags and hinds was significantly higher than PRG/WC animals in autumn (237 vs 207; 197 vs 159 g/d; P<0.01) and in spring (346 vs 281; and 260 vs 188 g/d; P<0.001), but not in winter (94 vs 95; 38 vs 40 g/d; P>0.05). Weaner stags and hinds grazing RC forage had significantly higher voluntary feed intake (VFI) than the comparable animals grazing PRG/WC pasture in either autumn (P<0.05) or spring (P<0.001). By 12-month of age, stags grazing RC were 6 kg heavier and hinds 7 kg heavier than animals grazing PRG/WC forage. All (100%) RC stags attained the minimum target slaughter LW (>92 kg LW; 50 kg carcass) by 12-month of age at the end of November, compared to 90% of PRG/WC stags. Carcass weights (kg) and dressing percentage (%) of RC stags were significantly higher than PRG/WC stags (58.9 vs 53.3 kg, P<0.01; 56.2 vs 52.4%, P<0.001), but the carcass GR was not different (P>0.05) either after or before being adjusted to equal carcass weight. The immunisation treatment did not provide any significant responses (P>0.05) in LWG and did not affect plasma prolactin concentrations. The immunisation against melatonin treatment did not give any significant effects (P>0.05) on all measurements of carcass production. In conclusion, these studies show that early venison production from grazed PRG/WC pastures is possible, and that this can be further improved by inputs of RC. Weaner red deer grazing red clover forage during autumn and spring grew and produced venison better than animals grazing conventional PRG/WC pastures. The immunisation against melatonin did not provide any significant effects on growth and venison production from weaner red deer grazing either RC or PRG/WC forages. RC offers very good potential as a special purpose forage for venison production.
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    The use of anatomical features of the stomach to investigate the nutritional status of deer populations : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1994) Lentle, Roger
    A feasibility study is undertaken for the development of indices recording interaction of individual ruminant herbivores with their nutritional environment with a view to their use as an individual based game management method. A current need for individual based methods having short response times is highlighted by a review contrasting population based and individual based methods of game management. Features desirable in a short time based individual method are discussed. Techniques which quantify the response of inbuilt mechanisms of nutritional thrift that operate in ruminants in response to declining quality of diet, (which I term" intrinsic nutritional optimisation") are reviewed from a viewpoint of their potential as tools for game management. Methods which record change in response to diet of rumen volume, papillary and omasal anatomical characteristics, are examined. Techniques that utilise simple anatomical parameters i.e. papillary length, papillary width, papillary site, omasal weight, omasal volume, omasal laminar area and omasal laminar number are favoured. A study of the extent of rumen wall shrinkage during preservation in formalin at various sites in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus), was undertaken. This demonstrated a degree of unpredictable variability sufficient to cast doubt on the accuracy of papillary density measurements such as are incorporated into FISA values. In these studies the effect of differing diet was evaluated using wild red deer as representative of an 'intermediate feeder' browsing and grazing habit, farmed red deer as representative of an obligate 'bulk feeder' grazing habit and wild fallow deer (Cervus dama)as representative of voluntary "bulk feeder grazing habit. A multivariate analysis of rumen papillary size at six objectively defined sample sites in wild and farmed red deer and in wild fallow deer was undertaken. Three significant axes were generated, overall papillary size, overall papillary shape and site specific papillation. These responded differently to changes in age, sex, diet and species. The results supported previous descriptive work demonstrating that papillation at certain sites varied with diet and that overall papillary size increased with age. However the rate of increase of papillary size was shown to vary according to the sex in concordance with known differences in bionomic strategy. Overall papillary shape was influenced solely by species. A multivariate analysis of omasal anatomical characteristics including laminar number and area, from wild and farmed red deer and from wild fallow deer was undertaken. Two axes were generated, overall size and overall leafiness. The latter axis showed significantly more variance in "intermediate feeder" wild red deer than in farmed red deer or in "roughage feeder" wild fallow deer. Rumen content analysis was carried out concurrent with other studies. As with the papillary analysis, there was no significant seasonal variation in wild deer samples, further supporting a hypothesis of little seasonal variation of dietary quality at population densities well below carrying capacity. A jaw length condition index was derived using Weibull curves derived from population samples obtained two years prior to the current study. Whilst these curves were shown to give a good description of the jaw length condition index distribution of the current population, there was no significant correlation of the index values with results from the papillary or omasal study. Possible explanations for this were considered. Firstly that the methods recorded different aspects of nutrition. Secondly that the jaw length index exhibited a cumulative damping of sensitivity as a consequence of progressive accumulation of non demarcated annual growth increments, a problem that did not occur in indices such as the site specific papulation factor, where there was no age related increase.
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    Studies of some aspects of gastrointestinal nematodes and Dictyocaulus viviparus of farmed red deer : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Veterinary Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1985) Anderson, Mark Vere
    Studies were carried out on aspects of the treatment and control of gastrointestinal nematodes and D. viviparus in red deer, under New Zealand farming conditions. In addition, the relationship between faecal egg count and gastrointestinal worm count was investigated. In the first study an anthelmintic-impregnated supplementary feed treatment regime incorporating 200mg albendazole per kg of deer nuts (medicated nuts), fed to give 5mg albendazole per kg liveweight daily for three 10-day treatments with 21 day intervals between treatments, was given to eight weaner deer in the autumn. This treatment was compared with 3-weekly single oral administration of albendazole (10mg/kg) to eight similar deer under the same conditions (set-stocked in small pasture plots and given 2kg concentrate feed per head, per day) and a similarly treated group rotationally grazed on pasture alone. Reductions in faecal egg and larval counts were the same for all three groups, but reinfestation in spring was more rapid in the pasture-fed deer. Liveweights were the same for all groups throughout the experimental period from March to November. As an adjunct to this trial, medicated nuts were fed at the same dose-rate to 16 adult hinds. All faecal egg and larval counts were reduced to zero within 10 days. Thus, anthelmintic-impregnated concentrate feed is an effective way of controlling gastrointestinal and lung nematodes in deer. The above trial and another on a commercial property showed that high faecal larval counts may be found in weaner deer where deer are set-stocked from before calving up to weaning, or if parasite control programmes are delayed until six weeks after weaning in March. A single oral dose of albendazole at 10mg/kg was found to reduce D. viviparus faecal larval counts and gastrointestinal nematode faecal egg counts by approximately 99% seven days after treatment. Faecal larval and egg counts were usually slightly elevated 21 days after treatment, suggesting either a rapid reinfestation and short prepatent period of the parasites in deer and/or an efficacy of albendazole of less than 100% against immature stages of the gut and lung nematodes. In a third study, cutaneous application of levamisole (20% W/V) at a dose-rate of 10mg levamisole per kg was found to be ineffective in reducing faecal egg or larval counts in a group of 23 red deer under two years of age. The fourth study involved collection of abomasa and intestines of 46 deer sent to a deer slaughter premises. A faecal egg count was performed and the gastrointestinal nematodes were identified and counted. The largest gut parasite burdens were of Trichostrongylus axei with counts up to 12,900. Five deer-specific species of the tribe Ostertagiea, Spiculopteragia spiculoptera, Spiculopteragia asymmetrica, Ostertagia leptospicularis, Skrjabinagia kolchida and Skrjabinagia lyratiformis were also common (counts up to 2470). Few other parasites were found and numbers were low (0 to 90). The relationship between worm count and faecal egg count was described by the relationship: Total Worm Count = 18.8 (Faecal Egg Count) - 341. However, there were few deer with high worm and egg counts and this relationship must therefore be regarded as tentative until more work can be carried out in deer with high worm burdens.
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    Rectal ultrasonographic investigations of pregnancy in farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy (Veterinary Science), at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1991) Revol, Brigitte
    This study describes the ultrasonographic appearance of the non-pregnant reproductive tract, and the pregnant uterus and conceptus from 6 to 211 days after mating, with an emphasis on early pregnancy from 6 to 42 days. In addition, 13 foetal age estimation equations were computed from measurements of foetal, placental and maternal dimensions. Mating dates were recorded for thirty seven red deer hinds two years of age or older. From immediately prior to the breeding season and at approximately weekly intervals from the commencement of mating to the end of gestation, rectal ultrasonographic scans were taken using a 5 MHz linear transducer while deer were held in a restraining device. Scans were recorded on video for later measurements and analyses. The vagina and cervix were visible, with the lumen appearing as a continuous or intermittent white line, respectively. The non-pregnant uterus was observed in most cases and was immediately anterior to the bladder. Structures resembling the ovaries were observed only occasionally. By seven days gestation, a 5 mm vesicle might be observed, and by day 14, oedema of uterine horns was apparent. A comma-shaped foetal mass 6 mm long, foetal membranes and formation of placentomes could be observed at day 24. The heart beat was observed at day 28 when the foetus was 10 mm long. Limb buds were observed at day 31, and by day 37 the head with nose and eyes was clearly distinguishable. Foetal movements were first observed on day 42. Elongation of the neck and the echogenicity of the ribs were observable by day 51 and 52, respectively. By day 58, the long bones were echogenic, and the individual vertebrae were clearly seen by day 59. The bladder and stomach were distinguished by day 62. From day 102, movements of foetal eyes could be observed. From day 114, the placentomes developed a mushroom shape, and some were attached to the endometrium only by a stem. After 150 days gestation, pregnancy could only be detected by viewing the presence of placentomes or foetal extremities in a fluid filled sac. Measurements of crown-rump, head length, head diameter, nose length, eye diameter, neck diameter, chest diameter, chest depth, umbilical cord diameter, amnion sac length and width, placentome diameter and uterine diameter, were recorded from appropriate scans and growth regression equations were computed. Age estimation equations were computed by transposing the regressions of foetal, placental or uterine dimension on age with age as the independent variable, to equations with age as the dependent variable. All equations were significant (P < 0.001). Each dimension was measurable over a defined period of pregnancy. The earliest dimension measurable was uterine diameter but these measurements were variable and no longer feasible after 45 days of pregnancy. Placentomes could be measured from 24 days gestation, but this dimension was also variable. The most accurate estimation of foetal age would be by measurement of the length of the amniotic sac between 37 and 56 days. Measurement of crown-rump length from 24 to 59 days, and head length from 42 to 84 days would also allow accurate estimates of foetal age. Accurate foetal ageing was not possible beyond approximately 150 days gestation. The sensitivity of rectal ultrasonography pregnancy for testing in red deer hinds was 35% prior to 20 days, 71% between 21 and 30 days, 98% between 31 and 40 days, 100% between 41 and 130 days, and for pregnancies of 131 days or more, the sensitivity was 95%. The reliability of a positive test was 100% between 41 and 130 days.
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    Post capture myopathy syndrome in red deer (Cervus elaphus) : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Veterinary Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1978) McAllum, Hamish John Fenwick
    The capturing of red deer from the wild to stock deer farms has brought with it problems of stress. Large numbers of deer have died due to poor catching techniques and inappropriate drugs. Efforts to minimize these deaths require an understanding of the physiology, pathology and epidemiology of the changes occurring within the animal and during capture. To assist in the correct interpretation of the data collected, normal haematological and biochemical parameters had to be established. This was carried out on deer of different age groups and sex from deer farms. In addition the effects of the commonly used capture drugs on the biochemical parameters were established. Blood and serum were obtained from captured animals at the site of capture and where possible further samples were obtained from these animals at set intervals. The biochemical parameters found to vary from the normal in captured animals were pH, Pco2, lactate, SGOT, (Aspartate aminotransferase), blood urea nitrogen, and potassium. The changes in these parameters clearly indicated a profound acute or delayed lactic acidosis and severe muscle damage both skeletal and cardiac. The captured animals were divided into those which survived (captured) and those which died (myopathic). It was found that the changes in the 'myopathic' group were more profound than in the 'captured' group. The rising blood urea nitrogen levels and damaged cardiac muscle may account for the delayed deaths from uraemia due to a severe nephrosis and cardiac failure. The clinical effects on captured animals were recorded and those that died in both the acute and delayed form were necropsied. The gross and histological lesions were described. The most obvious clinical changes in addition to temperature, respiration and heart rates were lameness, recumbency and the wry neck. Histologically, the muscle changes resembled those found in white muscle disease of domestic ruminants in this country. The epidemiological studies suggested certain simple measures could be taken to reduce the effects of the respiratory depression resulting from the drugs and transportation, to reduce the stress of capture and to allow acclimatisation to the new conditions. These were (1) that less or no Nalorphine be used, (2) that the animals were caught early in the year, (3) that young smaller females were preferred to males (4) that a loose bag totally enclosing the animals was used, (5) that darkened conditions helped keep the animals quiet and (6) all captured animals should be retained in a dark house for two or more days before release into the paddocks.