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Item A supplier development framework for agri-food value chains in developing countries : a test on a dairy value chain in Sri Lanka : a thesis with publication presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Logistics and Supply Chain Management, School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2025) DeSilva, LeezaAgri-food value chains (AVC) in developing countries, including dairy value chains (VC), face significant challenges. A key issue is farmers' limited capacity to improve their operational performance (e.g., product quality, delivery, and production efficiency) despite the support they may typically receive, which hinders the achievement of their triple-bottom-line (TBL) outcomes. In an AVC, farmers supply commodities that buyers (e.g., processors) purchase to add value. The concept of supplier development (SD) refers to a buyer taking an effort—strong or weak—to improve the capability and/or performance of their supplier. This makes SD (as understood in operations and supply chain management), an attractive proposition for predicting and explaining how farmer development initiatives by buyers can improve farmers' operational performance and their TBL outcomes. The objectives of the study were to: (i) study the dairy VC of Sri Lanka to understand how farmer development takes place through a milk processor; (ii) develop and test a theoretical model that predicts and explains the relationship between processor-led farmer development initiatives, farmer capability, processor-farmer relationship, and a farmer’s sustainable performance; (iii) analyze farmer heterogeneity to enable milk processors and other interested parties to better focus on farmer development initiatives; (iv) develop an index to measure the overall sustainable performance of dairy farmers and facilitate efficient, sustainability-focused development. The model developed through the literature posited that farmer development—farmer training (FT), financial support (FS), evaluation and feedback on farmer quality performance (EFFQP)—results in farmer TBL performance, through the mediation effects of farmer capability (FC) and processor-farmer relationship (PFR). Data collected from 324 Sri Lankan dairy farmers were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The heterogeneity analysis was conducted using cluster analysis, while the parameters of the sustainability index were estimated by fitting an index-creating model to the data. The findings supported the overarching hypothesis. FS as well as EFFQP were found to be having a more substantial positive impact on sustainable farmer performance than FT. Cluster analysis identified three distinct clusters—labeled as laggers, accelerators, and leaders—based on the cluster variables used. Laggers were found to be significantly underachieving in economic outcomes and FC, compared to accelerators. Notable differences in farmer and farm characteristics were identified across these clusters, and cluster-specific suggestions were provided to milk processors and policymakers to improve the FC and TBL outcomes of the farmers. The overall sustainability index, which considered farmer TBL outcomes and their enablers, suggested that all components and sub-components of the index are important (weight-wise) but farmer capability as a category commanded the highest weight (0.236) and farmer’s economic outcomes as a category commanded the lowest weights (0.170). The implications of these empirically generated weights were discussed and how the study contributes to new knowledge was argued.Item The impacts of the COVID-19 shock on sustainability and farmer livelihoods in Sri Lanka.(Elsevier B.V., 2022) Rathnayake S; Gray D; Reid J; Ramilan TThe COVID-19 pandemic and its handling in Sri Lanka has affected vegetable farmers in numerous ways and these impacts will constrain the country's move towards sustainable development. A field level study with vegetable farmers and key informants was carried out using exploratory research to understand, describe and analyze the impact of COVID-19 on the livelihoods of vegetable farmers and its relevance in achieving SDG 1. Data were supplemented by an extensive literature review. The analysis showed that the pandemic's impact on vegetable farmers in Sri Lanka is multidimensional and will increase vulnerability among vegetable farmers, for the long run. Adapting alternative inputs and marketing strategies, provision of immediate financial support, promoting innovative technology and service provision, and implementing intervention strategies tailored to farmer heterogeneity will improve farmer livelihoods and the prosperity of the sector.Item Genomic Variability of Canine Parvoviruses from a Selected Population of Dogs and Cats in Sri Lanka(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2021-08-29) Jinadasa R; Ghosh S; Hills S; Premalal T; Atapattu U; Fuward M; Kalupahana W; Dunowska M; Gunn-Moore D; Aguiar DMDThe aim of the study was to identify canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) subtypes circulating among a selected population of domestic dogs and cats in Sri Lanka and to investigate the evolutionary patterns among Sri Lankan viruses in the context of contemporary global CPV-2 sequences. Altogether, 40/61 (65.6%) samples tested were positive for CPV-2 DNA, including 31/48 (64.6%) dogs and 9/13 (69%) cats. All three subtypes (CPV-2a, CPV-2b and CPV-2c) were detected, with CPV-2a being most common. International median joining haplotype network of 291 CPV-2 sequences suggested that there was little barrier for CPV-2 moving between different geographical regions worldwide, including Sri Lanka, and that there was no correlation between the genetic structure within the molecular network and the decade of sample collection. By contrast, there was correlation between CPV-2 subtype and genetic structure, both within the international network and within the network built from 31 Sri Lankan CPV-2 sequences only. The structure within the latter was not correlated with the location of the veterinary clinic where the samples were submitted, the age or species of the host. Altogether, we have shown that there is considerable variability of CPV-2 genotypes circulating in Sri Lanka, which is likely driven by both local evolution and introduction from other countries. The similarity of CPV-2 obtained from cats and dogs suggests that cats may play a role in the epidemiology of CPV-2 in Sri Lanka.Item Investigation of tropical pasture species to improve dairying in the tropics : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Plant Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Jayasinghe Mudiyanselage, Priyanath JayasingheDespite the ever-increasing demand for dairy products, dairy production in tropical regions is often lower than in temperate regions, due to a range of factors including the lower nutritive value of pastures. The availability of high-quality tropical pastures is a key requirement to increase the productivity of dairy cows as well as manage enteric methane emissions. Warm-season perennial grasses are the dominant forages in tropical and subtropical regions, and thus exploring their nutritive characteristics and evaluating their likely performance in existing dairy production systems, is imperative in the effort to improve dairy productivity. This thesis was undertaken to investigate tropical pasture species for improving dairying in the tropics via a modelling and simulation approach. A dearth of data comparing the nutritive values of tropical pastures grown across different environments limits the selection of forages for livestock in the tropics. A database was constructed containing a total of 4750 records, with 1277 measurements of nutritive values representing 56 tropical pasture species and hybrid cultivars grown in 26 different locations in 16 countries, in order to compare the nutritive values and greenhouse gas production across different forage species, climatic zones, and defoliation management regimes. The average edaphoclimatic (with minimum and maximum values) conditions within this data set were characterized as 22.5°C temperature (range 17.5–29.30°C), 1253.9 mm rainfall (range 104.5–3390.0 mm), 582.6 m elevation (range 15–2393 m), and a soil pH of 5.6 (range 4.6–7.0). The data revealed spatial variability in nutritive metrics across bioclimatic zones and between and within species. The ranges of these nutrients were as follows: neutral detergent fibre (NDF) 50.9–79.8%, acid detergent fibre (ADF) 24.7–57.4%, crude protein (CP) 2.1–21.1%, dry matter (DM) digestibility 30.2–70.1%, metabolisable energy (ME) 3.4–9.7 MJ kg⁻¹ DM, with methane (CH₄) production at 132.9–133.3 g animal⁻¹ day⁻¹. The arid/dry zone recorded the highest DM yield, with decreased CP and high fibre components and minerals. Furthermore, the data revealed that climate, defoliation frequency and intensity, in addition to their interactions, have a significant effect on tropical pasture nutritive values and CH₄ production. Overall, hybrid and newer tropical cultivars performed well across different climates, with small variations in herbage nutritive value. Results revealed that greater pasture nutritive values and lower CH₄ production can be potentially achieved through the selection of improved pastures and subsequent management. Subsequently, the suitability of three improved tropical perennial pastures: Chloris gayana ‘Rhodes grass cv. Reclaimer’ (RR), Megathyrsus maximus ‘Gatton Panic’ (GP), and Brachiaria ruziziensis x B. decumbens x B. brizantha ‘Brachiaria Mulato II’ (BM) for tropical dairy production was evaluated using their carbon assimilation, canopy structure, herbage plant-part accumulation and nutritive value parameters under irrigated conditions. A field experiment was conducted at Gatton Research Dairy (27° 54′ S, 152°33′ E, 89 m asl) Queensland, Australia, which has a predominantly subtropical climate. Photosynthesis biochemistry, canopy structure, herbage accumulation, plant-part composition, and nutritive value were evaluated. Photosynthesis biochemistry differed between pasture species. The efficiency of CO₂ assimilation was highest for GP and quantum efficiency was highest for BM. Pasture canopy structure was significantly affected by an interaction between pasture species and harvest. Forage biomass accumulation was highest in GP, while BM produced more leaves and less stem compared to both GP and RR. A greater leafy stratum and lower stemmy stratum depth were observed in the vertical sward structure of BM. Brachiaria Mulato II showed greater carbon partitioning to leaves, leaf: stem ratio, canopy, and leaf bulk density. The BM also demonstrated greater nutritive value (Total digestible nutrients (TDN), ADF, NDF, neutral detergent insoluble protein (NDICP), starch, non-fibre carbohydrates (NFC), ME, mineral profile (Mg, P, K, Fe, Zn) and dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD)) for leaf, stem, and the whole plant. Overall, the observed greater quantum efficiency, leaf accumulation, and nutritive value of BM suggested that BM is an attractive forage option for dairying in pasture-based systems in tropical and subtropical climates. The DairyMod-SGS, a mechanistic biophysical pasture model was parametrised and robustly validated for the prediction of the growth of the three tropical pastures (BM, GP, and RR), aiming to use the model as an effective tool to explore the likely performances of newer species under different edaphoclimatic and agronomic management practices. The model was calibrated using measurements of biomass components, canopy structure, and carbon assimilation collected from the field experiment at the Gatton Research Dairy Farm. Subsequently, the model was tested extensively using the published and unpublished data (16 data sets, 32 experiments, 14 different locations across South America, North America, Australia and Africa) to ensure that the parameterised model performed well and was reliable across a diverse set of environments and management practices. In the model parameterisation stage, the model predicted the above-ground biomass with good agreement for all tropical pastures with a high R² of 0.92, 0.98, 0.74 and low RMSE of 341, 583, 848 kg DM ha⁻¹ for BM, GP, and RR, respectively. The model agreement was good for the validation data with R² of 0.86, 0.80, 0.87 and RMSE of 954.5, 790.5, and 633.2 kg DM ha⁻¹ for BM, GP, and RR, respectively. The predicted leaf and stem partitioning was relatively poor, and the model also struggled to simulate realistic pasture growth in Mediterranean and desert environments (R² < 0.50). The present study has improved the robustness and accuracy of DairyMod-SGS in relation to tropical pastures and indicated that the model can be successfully used for investigating the likely performance of improved tropical pastures under a broad range of conditions. The validated DairyMod-SGS pasture model was applied to simulate the long-term pasture production of three improved pastures (BM, GP, and RR) in major dairying regions of Sri Lanka under three management scenarios: 1) rainfed pasture production system under the industry average nitrogen (N) fertiliser rate (Yₜᵂᴺ = yield over time under water and N limitation); 2) rainfed pasture production system under non-limiting N fertilisation (Yₜᵂ = yield over time with no N limitation but water limitation); and 3) potential pasture production system under non-limiting N and irrigation (Yₜ = yield over time with no N and water limitations). Simulations were carried out for 16 sites across Sri Lanka (8 sites in the dry zone (DZ), 5 sites in the intermediate zone (IZ), and 3 sites in the wet zone (WZ)) over a 30-years period (1980–2010). The model simulated that the long-term pasture production greatly varied between climate zones, pasture species and management scenarios. Overall, the Yₜᵂᴺ scenario showed a seasonal cycle following the rainfall pattern, with a reduction in growth rates in dry seasons (May to September). Growth rate and herbage accumulation were greater in GP at Yₜᵂᴺ, and BM at Yₜᵂ and Yₜ, while RR always showed the lowest growth rate. The variability of pasture growth between climate zones was highest in DZ (May to September) whereas the variability between species was lowest in RR. Pasture accumulation of both BM and GP outperformed their standard cultivars currently grown in Sri Lanka. In general, the pasture accumulation under Yₜᵂ increased (doubled) the growth rate, while the Yₜ scenario substantially increased (nearly tripled) the growth rate. Overall, the finding of this thesis suggested that all three pasture cultivars tested (BM, GP, and RR) are suitable for growing across major dairying regions in Sri Lanka, and that appropriate fertiliser and irrigation management can greatly intensify the herbage accumulation. In particular, BM appeared to be promising in terms of nutritive value, and agronomic and physiological traits. However, regional edaphic conditions, and the management ability of the farmers with respect to inputs and defoliation management, will ultimately determine the performance of improved cultivars such as those used in this thesis. There is a need for extension activities to support farmers in the management required to achieve best performance (yield, nutritive value and persistence) from these species. Future research is recommended to: 1) validate the model under Sri Lankan conditions, using both unimproved and improved cultivars, to determine its suitability in estimating tropical pasture yield; and 2) use additional models to evaluate the performance of improved tropical pastures in the context of the whole farm system, to identify the likely impact on dairy production and economic return.Item Risk management by entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial micro and small-scale firms in the agriculture food-processing sector in Sri Lanka : a mixed method approach : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in Agribusiness at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Ganegoda Hewage, Ishara AnjaleeRisk, risk-taking, and risk management have been identified as integral components of entrepreneurship since the inception of the concept of entrepreneurship. However, the relationship between these components still puzzles scholars as different scholars have presented often contrasting theoretical notions and empirical findings regarding how entrepreneurial firms take and manage risk. Despite the importance of risk in entrepreneurship, the attention given to risk management and the adoption of specific risk management strategies is limited in the research literature. The firms operating in the MSME sector play a vital role in economic development in developing countries, particularly in Sri Lanka. The term entrepreneurship is frequently associated and investigated along with the term MSMEs where many researchers have used these two terms synonymously or alternatively. Literature supports the notion that entrepreneurial firms and small businesses are related but they are two different entities with distinctive features. However, the lack of specific criteria to differentiate between the two firm groups is identified as a major hindrance in the sector that negatively affects the development of beneficial policies and scholarly work. With the above questions identified, the overarching research question of this study is; “Do the entrepreneurial micro and small-scale (MSE) firms in the agriculture food processing sector in Sri Lanka manage the risks they face any differently from other MSEs operating in the sector?”. To address this question first it was necessary to assure the existence of such entrepreneurial firms within the sector. For that, the study devised a method to differentiate entrepreneurial firms from their non-entrepreneurial counterparts. Moreover, the study also aimed to investigate the factors that determine the differing risk management behaviour of these MSEs operating in the agriculture food processing sector in Sri Lanka. The research process began with a preliminary study to investigate the context of agriculture food processing MSEs in Sri Lanka. With the support of the findings of the preliminary study and the literature, the five-dimensional Entrepreneurial Orientation approach (i.e. innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness, and autonomy) was identified as the best-fitting method to differentiate between the two firm groups. Upon confirming the existence of entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms in the sector, the study adopted an exploratory sequential mixed-method approach consisting of two phases; a qualitative phase with selected case firms to explore the nature of their EO followed by a quantitative phase with survey data to investigate the risk management behaviour of a population of these firms. The qualitative phase was conducted with four selected case firms; two entrepreneurial and two non-entrepreneurial to explore the level and nature of EO. The quantitative data were gathered from a sample of 206 MSEs using a structured, researcher-administered questionnaire. The results confirmed that entrepreneurial firms do exist in the agriculture food processing sector in Sri Lanka. Proactiveness, innovativeness, risk-taking, and competitive aggressiveness were identified as the more suitable EO dimensions that can be used to identify and differentiate between entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms in the Sri Lankan context, with autonomy being identified as not strongly contributing to this differentiation. The study agrees with the existing body of literature on “entrepreneurs are risk takers”, yet goes much beyond of this common notion to prove that they are not only they are risk takers, but also better risk managers compared to their non-entrepreneurial counterparts. The uniqueness of this study is that it has not inly investigated the risk management behaviour of entrepreneurial small firms but also comapred it with a group of non-entreprneurial firms. Quantitative study found significant differences between entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms in terms of their adoption of risk management strategies. More entrepreneurial firms adopted knowledge-related, strategic, and product price-related market risk management strategies compared to non-entrepreneurial firms. This was also found in the qualitative phase where the entrepreneurial firms were more proactive and showed a notable orientation toward adopting strategic, and knowledge-related, risk management strategies. The two firm groups showed clear differences in their propensities to risk, with two categories of risk propensities identified as entrepreneurial risk (seeking) propensity attributes and non-entrepreneurial risk (averting) propensity attributes. The entrepreneurial risk (seeking) attributes were found to strongly contribute to the differentiation between entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial MSEs while the adoption of strategic and knowledge-related risk management strategies was negatively affected by the non-entrepreneurial risk (averting) propensity. Investigating how sources of risk are perceived, both as opportunities and threats, for both entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms was another important contribution of this study. The results highlighted that the entrepreneurial group perceived more opportunities arising from the sources of risk than the non-entrepreneurial group, with both groups perceiving the threats in a similar manner. Having a proper identification of entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms is useful for policymakers to devise their policies more strategically. Finally, this study expands the current understanding of entrepreneurial/non-entrepreneurial firms, especially in terms of strategic planning and knowledge-orientation of entrepreneurial firms in managing risks, risk propensity, and perceiving different sources of risks based on the strong foundation of their proactive and opportunity-oriented nature.Item The mediating role of organisational culture in the relationship between region-based firm ownership type (RBFOT) and manufacturing performance : a test on the apparel industry in Sri Lanka : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Gunasekera, MarlonIn today’s globalised context, manufacturing firms belonging to various regions of the world expand their businesses beyond borders and gradually become international, multinational, and global companies investing in various countries and regions of the world. Most of these firms establish foreign affiliates and compete with the local (domestic) firms in host countries. In this context, international and cross-cultural operations management studies have high theoretical and practical value in understanding how management practices, systems, techniques, and norms account for the manufacturing performance differences between foreign and local firms. Understanding and explaining the reasons for differences in the manufacturing performance of local and foreign-owned firms is an underexplored research area, especially in the developing regions of the world. This study adopts a cross-cultural operations management perspective and hypothesises that differences in organisational culture traits (related management practice orientations) of firms belonging to different regions of the world account for manufacturing performance differences. The study examines the relationship between Region-Based Firm Ownership Type (RBFOT) and manufacturing performance, and the mediating role of the organisational culture (an important influence on manufacturing practices) in this relationship. The study was based in Sri Lanka (South Asia) with the apparel industry as the context, and local firms are compared with foreign firms from two other regions: Western and East Asian. Semi-structured interviews were used to clarify the research context and to understand how foreign-owned firms set up, operate and establish organisational cultures in Sri Lanka. The subsequent quantitative study covered 93 firms with data aggregated to the firm level to test the mediation model. To test the model, ANOVA and parallel multiple mediation analysis using regression-based SPSS PROCESS macro were adopted. The findings revealed that organisational culture (measured using Denison’s culture traits and related management practice orientations) is a significant mediator in explaining the difference in the manufacturing performance of RBFOTs. Moreover, significant differences in culture traits and related management practice orientations were evident between Western, East Asian, and South Asian firms generating different levels of manufacturing performance. Other contributions include developing a new scale to measure the manufacturing performance of apparel firms and validating Denison’s Organisational Culture Survey (DOCS) in Sri Lanka. Overall, the study contributes to the theory and practice of international and cross-cultural operations management in general and apparel industrial management in particular.Item Molecular epidemiology of Salmonella in the broiler industry of Sri Lanka : thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Liyanagunawardena, NilukshiThe increasing occurrence of non-typhoidal Salmonella in poultry is an emerging threat for public health in Sri Lanka, and salmonellosis has incurred massive economic loss for the poultry industry in the country. Thus, the thesis presented encompasses a comprehensive study to understand prevalence and possible risk factors for Salmonella carriage in broiler farms as well as whole-genome sequence-based population structure, phylogenetic relationships and antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella in Sri Lankan poultry. The studies described in this thesis include a cross-sectional survey (i.e., sampling and questionnaire-based study) conducted from July to December 2017 in broiler farms (115) from poultry-dense areas and associated hatcheries (15) as well as an outbreak study (from 2010 to 2018), based on isolates and metadata from poultry salmonellosis outbreaks. After initial identification and PCR confirmation of a total of 164 Salmonella isolates, whole-genome sequencing was performed and antimicrobial resistance profiles of the isolates were determined. Results revealed a Salmonella prevalence of 32.2%, CI 95% [23.6-40.7] in broiler farms and 66.7%, CI 95% [42.8-90.5] in the associated hatcheries. Litter management, rest period between flocks, feed storage, district and farmers’ knowledge of sick birds were identified as risk factors for Salmonella carriage in the broiler farms, through multivariate logistic regression modelling. Eighteen different multi-locus sequence types of Salmonella were identified, including nine which were reported for the first time in Sri Lankan poultry. The most common serovars were S. Kentucky ST314 (26.8%, CI 95% [20.0-33.6]) and S. Enteritidis ST11 (19.5%, CI 95% [13.4-25.6]). A high percentage of quinolone resistance manifesting as resistance to nalidixic acid (41.5%, CI 95% [33.9-49.1]) and intermediate resistance to ciprofloxacin (45.1%, CI 95% [37.5-52.7]) and enrofloxacin (35.4%, CI 95% [28.0-42.7]) was found. The findings of this thesis, especially in the absence of previous comprehensive studies, will enable the design of control strategies to strengthen the national Salmonella control programme in Sri Lanka.Item Effects of nutrition on milk production and reproduction of dairy cows : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Yapa Hetti Pathirennehelage, Sagara Nelum KumaraSri Lanka is developing its dairy industry in a concerted effort to become self-sufficient in dairy products. Dairy farming in Sri Lanka occurs largely in small (≤10 cows) or medium (11-100 cows) scale farms, characteristically using diets that are based on tropical forages and various concentrate supplements. Despite this reliance on forages, little is known about their nutritive value or about the most appropriate ways of managing such forages in dairy rations. Consequently, per cow yields are generally low, and poor fertility is a significant limitation to the viability of the dairy industry. The primary objective of this thesis was to examine the management of forages in Sri Lankan dairying systems and the consequences of that management upon dairy cow productivity and fertility. As there was a lack of systematic information regarding the nutritive value of forage-based diets, generating such data was the first focus of the study. These data were used to calculate the extent to which supplied diets met the energy and protein requirements of dairy cows. Direct observation of cows and blood-based measures of metabolic status were used to verify cows’ nutritional status. As there was also a lack of systematic information on the fertility of Sri Lankan dairy herds, this was also evaluated. The first study (Chapter 3) investigated the feeds and rations used in medium-scale dairy production systems of Sri Lanka. Metabolisable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) content were assessed in the two most commonly used forages (Guinea grass ecotype A (Panicum maximum), hereafter referred to as Guinea grass, and Hybrid Napier CO-3 (Pennisetum purpureum* P. americanum), hereafter referred as CO-3 grass) and in the secondary forages Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) and maize stover (Zea mays L.). Mean ME and CP content of Guinea and CO-3 grasses were 7.8 and 9.3 MJ/kg dry matter (DM) and 8.0 and 8.8% DM, respectively. Total dietary intakes of ME and CP were calculated using these values. Daily ME intake across the entire late-dry to mid-lactation period was consistently 7% lower than calculated requirements, whilst CP intake (13.5% DM) was below requirements in early lactating (16 18% DM required) but not dry cows (10 12% DM required). Metabolic profiling (serum albumin, urea, β hydroxybutyrate and non-esterified fatty acid concentrations) over the same period confirmed the presence of widespread energy and protein deficiencies (Chapter 4). However, body condition scores (BCS) were consistent over the lactation at 4.3 4.5 (1-10 scale). Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) concentrations (Chapter 6) were higher during Days 1-14 of lactation than during Days 43 57 (60.8 ± 2.6 ng/mL vs. 72.3 ± 3.6 ng/mL), and also in cows with higher post-calving BCS, but were not clearly related to calculated energy status. The major conclusion from Chapters 3 and 4 was that nutritional deficiencies in Sri Lankan dairy cows could largely be attributed to poor control of stage of maturity of harvested forages. Reproductive performance of cows (Chapter 5) was assessed using farm records (including farmers’ observations of oestrus) and serum progesterone assays over Days 43-120. Progesterone profiles showed that 61.6% of cows resumed ovarian cycles by Day 120; but only 42% of these were observed in oestrus. Further, of the cows that progesterone assay had not shown resumed cyclicity by Day 120, 20.9% had been considered by farmers to have displayed oestrus. Pregnancy rates were 12.7% by Day 120 and 59% by Day 400, average intervals from calving to conception were 196.1 ± 8.9 days, and from calving to first artificial insemination (AI) were 116.0 ± 2.5 days, with 3.05 ± 0.2 inseminations required per conception. The high proportion of anoestrous cows and low conception rates were largely attributed to inadequate nutrition during the transition and early lactation periods, compounded by inaccurate oestrus detection. Parity (1st) and breed (Holstein-Friesian, HF) of cows were both risk factors for delayed resumption of oestrous cycles. Concentrations of IGF-1 were largely unrelated to reproductive outcomes, except those values on Days 43-57 were negatively related to the interval between calving and first AI. Chapter 7 investigated the nutritional composition of ryegrass-white clover pastures in New Zealand that were grazed with different rotation lengths, on the hypothesis that longer rotations lengths would result in more mature swards, with lower quality herbage. Farms were selected with longer (winter ~35 days, spring ~25-30 days) or shorter (winter ~30 days, spring ~20-25 days) grazing rotations. Both ME and CP were reduced by higher pre-grazing DM and rotation length, whilst post-grazing DM and residual height were positively correlated (r2 ≥0.8) with pre-grazing DM. Thus, the quality of the forage from long grazing rotations was poorer, and, therefore, the amount of DM consumed by grazing cows may be affected. Many cow-related factors significantly affected the reproductive performance (Chapter 8) of dairy cows in New Zealand. Cows with >85% of HF genes had lower pregnancy rates in the first three (PR21) and six (PR42) weeks from the start of breeding compared with those with ≤85% HF genes. Cows of parity 1-4 had higher PR21 and/or PR42 than those of parity ≥5. Pregnancy rate to first service (PREG1) was lower (odds ratio (OR): 0.7) in cows with higher BCS change ( 0.5 to 1 units: 1 10 scale) between calving and the BCS nadir. Cows that calved in July had higher PR21, and PR42 (OR:1.96, and 2.51, respectively) than those that calved in September, while cows that calved in August had higher submission rates in the first three (SR21) and six (SR42) weeks from the start of breeding (OR: 2.39, 3.21, respectively) than those that calved in September. Higher fat production and total milk solids production were associated with significant negative energy balance (NEB) (≥ 30 MJME/day), but NEB was less (or was positive) in cows with lower milk yields. Therefore, it appears that breed, BCS, parity, energy balance, calving month and milk composition are all useful indicators of future reproductive efficiency. Taken together, these studies for the first time, characterise the quality of dairy forages in Sri Lanka and the adverse effects of inadequate nutrition upon cow productivity. The studies in New Zealand confirmed that forage quality and intake were adversely affected by over-maturity of pasture, driven primarily by rotation length, and these findings supported conclusions made regarding forages in Sri Lanka. Characterisation of reproductive performance of Sri Lanka dairy cows showed that it was at a level that undermines the viability and productivity of the dairy industry. Reproductive performance is not only impaired because of the adverse effects of nutrition, but also due to the inadequacy of farmers’ reproductive management. Whilst these results are ostensibly depressing, they point to some relatively easy-to-implement interventions (e.g. improving forage management, better ration formulation, better education of farmers) to boost the future of the Sri Lankan dairy industry.Item Smallholder dairy farmers participation in milk markets in Sri Lanka : a livelihood analysis : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Rural Development at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Thenuwara Acharige, NadeeshaCommercial dairy farming is regarded as a promising mechanism through which rural poverty can be alleviated in Sri Lanka, and in many other developing countries around the world. The Sri Lankan Government has implemented and supported multiple dairy development programmes since 2010 aimed at strengthening smallholder dairy farmers and enhancing their participation in the formal milk market. Previous research has examined different aspects of smallholder dairying, including production practices, milk market participation and the impact of commercial dairying on livelihoods. So far, smallholder market participation studies have shown mixed results with the benefits of market participation seeming to favour some smallholder farmers over others. Little research, in either Sri Lanka or other developing countries, has explored in-depth smallholders’ dairy commercial activities in relation to the multiple livelihood activities farmers pursue and their overall asset portfolio. Using a livelihoods lens and the concept of livelihood pathways, this study extends knowledge of how smallholders engage in both formal and informal commercial dairying and why they engage in the way they do. Uniquely this is explored both at one point in time and over smallholders dairying history. In addition, this study adds to knowledge on the significance of commercial dairying in smallholders’ livelihoods. Smallholders’ milk selling varied in terms of regularity of selling throughout the year, consistency of volume sold, and type of market participated in the most. Differences across informal and formal milk markets, diversity of smallholders’ circumstances and livelihood factors shaped three distinct patterns of milk production and selling. Smallholders endowed with a high level of all five assets, with diversified income activities including multiple stable income sources and a weak adherence to traditional social norms, participated in milk markets regularly, delivering relatively large, consistent volumes of milk. These smallholders dominated both formal and informal markets and their overall commercial dairy trajectories were relatively stable over time. In contrast, resource-constrained smallholders had the least diversified portfolio with seasonal livelihood activities and a strong adherence to social norms, sold milk irregularly in the market. The volumes they delivered to the market were low and variable, and they relied heavily on informal selling. These smallholders’ dairy trajectories were vulnerable, they were locked-in to low production and low-volume selling and were characterised by a lack of resilience in the face of unexpected shocks. Those smallholders falling in between the well off and poorly endowed smallholders showed a higher level of diversity in milk-market participation when their selling pattern was examined within a year. Half of middle smallholders delivered the majority of milk to the formal market regularly, in large and consistent volumes, while the other half sold milk seasonally, in low and variable volumes, mostly to the informal market. Moderately resource-endowed smallholders had fluctuating commercial dairy trajectories which are relatively more dynamic than the stable and vulnerable trajectories in terms of production and selling. They are the smallholders who frequently move between the formal and informal markets. In general, fluctuating trajectories are marked by a moderate amount of formal market participation, as well as a moderate level of regularity and consistency in selling volumes. The comprehension of moderately endowed smallholders cannot be grasped by examining a static form of their commercial dairying, as this study has demonstrated. This research highlights that synergy across five asset types, and complementarity between livelihood activities, increases livelihood resilience and facilitates smallholder milk-market participation. In Sri Lanka social norms influence market participation by shaping how smallholders use dairy-related assets and the priority they place on the selling of milk relative to other social and cultural functions. This research showed that resource-endowed smallholders were less dependent on milk-selling as they had other stable income sources for living. However, milk-selling was highly significant for resource-constrained smallholders due to the uncertainty of their income sources. Based on key findings, this research argues that development policies related to dairy commercialization need to account for the diversity of smallholder dairy farmers. Likewise, linking smallholders to the formal market may require different interventions aimed at changing the individual farmer’s attitudes and values related to dairying and making them capable of dealing with formal institutions in the formal market by supporting the enhancement of their overall asset portfolio. Finally, this study emphasises the importance of taking into account context-specific factors such as dairying cultural embeddedness, the availability of multiple markets, and smallholder dairy trajectories when developing policies and development interventions aimed at reducing poverty through increased milk market participation.Item Value chain integration for rural co-operatives : comparative analysis in the rice sector in Sri Lanka : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agribusiness at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Fernando, Prageeth SanjayaAgri-food industry is transforming in developing countries due to trade liberalisation, globalisation and urbanisation trends. As a result, linking smallholder farmers to modern markets has been a concern among scholars, development agencies and policymakers. Although the transformation in agri-food industry has created many opportunities for smallholder farmers to elevate their income and welfare, they are confronted with many challenges such as poor access to technology, information, inputs, credits, and value-adding services. In this context; co-operatives are recognised to play an important role in improving smallholder farmers' market access. There is an ample amount of literature that discusses the advantages co-operatives are providing to their members/smallholder farmers. Most recent studies on co-operatives have compared members to non-members in terms of benefits and performance. Nevertheless, member benefits and performance of vertically integrated co-operatives gain less attention despite their importance. Vertically integrated co-operatives perform a range of activities related to supply of inputs, services and market information. Yet, there is scant information on how co-operatives' vertical integration benefits their members/smallholder farmers. This study aims to analyse and compare member benefits and performance of co-operatives vertically integrated into two levels: partially and fully integrated co-operatives. In particular, this study addresses whether there are better performance and members' benefits in fully integrated co-operatives than partially integrated co-operatives. This study was conducted in one of the main rice-producing provinces in Sri Lanka using a mixed-methods approach. Co-operatives involved in rice business activities in the province were studied and divided based on their level of vertical integration: partially or fully integrated. Partially integrated co-operatives centrally control some of the successive activities of a value chain (supply of inputs, provision of services and information, production, and assembling and marketing of primary products). Fully integrated co-operatives centrally control all the successive activities of a value chain (supply of inputs, provision of services and information, production, assembling and marketing of primary products, processing, wholesaling, and retailing). Cross-case comparisons of interview data complemented with financial data revealed that co-operatives' financial performance was not significantly different between partially and fully integrated co-operatives and was comparably unsatisfactory at both levels. Further, the financial performance of co-operatives was affected by their governance, managerial, technical and financial attributes. Survey data of 307 rice farmers were used to analyse and compare member-perceived benefits and performance between partially and fully integrated co-operatives. Exploratory factor analysis of data revealed five key areas of benefits: business and financial, livelihood, technology and information, low-cost inputs, and democratic control and education. It was found that business and financial, and technology and information benefits, were better among members in fully integrated co-operatives. Besides, propensity score matching analysis revealed better profits per kilogram of paddy rice and higher economic profit among members in fully integrated co-operatives. However, the regression analysis results showed varying financial performance among the members of co-operatives depending on their demographic and household, farm, and contextual factors. Findings in this study provided some important theoretical and practical implications. The benefits studied in this research provide directives for managers in formulating rice-related business strategies that are well-aligned with members' interests. Contradictions between members' perceived benefits and their actual financial performance in fully integrated co-operatives suggest a lack of awareness among members about the benefits of value-added activities and emphasise a need for improving member communication and engagement. Policymakers should be encouraged to promote vertically integrated co-operatives and provide training to their managers (including directors) on formulating and executing competitive strategies, good governance, and revisions concurrent to changing market forces.