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    Investigations on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) production and nutrition : a sustainable solution for poultry feeding : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science, School of Agriculture and Environment, College of Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024-08-20) Mahmoud, Amira Elsayed Abdalla
    Black soldier fly (BSF; Hermetia illucens L.) is renowned for efficiently converting organic wastes into valuable biomass rich in protein and fat. This makes it a profitable and sustainable method for waste management and a useful feed source for animals like poultry, fish, pigs, and pets. Using BSF reduces the dependence on traditional feed ingredients such as soybean and fish meal, which are often imported and add to the carbon footprint. Despite growing interest and large-scale production of BSF meals, knowledge gaps hinder the widespread adoption of this technology, especially in small and medium-scale operations. The overall aim of this multidisciplinary research was to better understand the biology and rearing methods of BSF, processing of insect meals, and their utilisation by broiler chickens. The thesis research specifically investigated: (1) methods and techniques that optimise BSF breeding and meal processing relevant to small and medium-sized operations, (2) the impact of substrate type, moisture, and compaction on the non-feeding stages of BSF, (3) disease management in BSF colonies to ensure healthy population dynamics, including the first record of red mites as a parasitic case within BSF colonies, and (4) the nutritional value of the larval and pre-pupal stages of BSF as replacements for soybean meal (SBM) in poultry feeds. Firstly, the thesis provided a practical guide to establishing and managing a BSF colony, covering the entire process from egg production to larval and pre-pupal meal processing. The procedures were based on the experience of producing 450 kg of BSF larvae (BSFL) and pre-pupae (BSFP) over the course of doctoral research. Secondly, a study examined the impacts of substrate type, moisture levels, and compaction on BSF pupation success, adult emergence and morality. Among the six substrates evaluated (sand, wood shavings, topsoil, vermiculite, spent wheat middlings, and potting soil), spent wheat middlings presented as the most cost-effective and readily available option. Moisture level was found to significantly affect substrate performance, with 10% moisture providing the best outcomes for pupation and reducing mortality while avoiding mould growth. Mild compaction did not negatively impact pupation development, suggesting that moderate compaction could enable small farmers to reuse substrate and lower the cost. Thirdly, an infestation of poultry red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae), causing noticeable skin discoloration and anatomical damage to the BSFL and BSFP, was identified. The mites repeatedly bit and fed on the BSF bodily fluids, causing distress. The implications of mite infestation on colony health and viability are discussed, emphasising the need to maintain colony hygiene. Lastly, the apparent metabolisable energy (AME) and standardised ileal digestibility coefficients (SIDC) of amino acids (AA) of full-fat BSFL and BSFP meals for broiler chickens were determined. The AME and SIDC of BSFL and BSFP were higher than those reported for SBM, the commonly used protein meal in poultry diets. The findings demonstrated that BSFL and BSFP meals are better sources of energy and digestible AA, and are potential substitutes for SBM. Although the principles behind BSF bioconversion technology may seem straightforward, effective implementation requires deeper understanding of its complex stages. The present thesis provided a thorough overview of BSF technology, including rearing methods, optimising pupation conditions, the identification of a novel ectoparasite affecting BSF colonies, and the potential use of BSFL and BSFP into broiler chicken diets. By addressing these key aspects, the research contributes valuable insights for optimising BSF production and utilisation, particularly for small and medium-scale operations.
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    Optimization of the rearing environment for the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), a promising agent for organic waste bioconversion : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) Liu, Zhongyi
    Bioconversion is an environmentally, socially and economically sound measure for organic waste management. The black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera Stratiomyidae), is one of the promising species for organic waste bioconversion. Larvae of BSF (BSFL) can feed on multiple types of organic waste, and the harvested larvae could be processed into valuable products such as animal feed, chitin, and organic fertilizer. To maximize the efficiency of a bioconversion system using BSFL, it is necessary to optimize the rearing environment of the insects, which requires knowledge of the impact of environmental factors on BSF at different life stages. This thesis reports my investigations on (1) the effect of diet on selected BSF larval (BSFL) life history and physiological traits and bioconversion efficiency, (2) the effect of substrate type and moisture content on BSF pupation, and (3) the effect of artificial light type, light regime, and adult density on BSF reproduction. First of all, I tested three types of organic waste (brewer’s waste, pig manure, and semidigested grass) against a standard diet (broll; a mixture of wheat bran and wheat flour). Among the organic wastes tested, brewer’s waste led to the fastest larval growth and highest larval weight gain. However, protein conversion efficiency of BSFL fed on brewer’s waste was lower than the larvae fed on the standard diet, which may be due to the high protein content in brewer’s waste. A meta-analysis revealed that dietary lignocellulosic content has an adverse impact on BSFL weight gain. Second, I investigated the effects of two pupation substrates (vermiculite and wood chips) and nine moisture levels on BSF pupation rate and depth. Using moist pupation substrate could reduce prepupal water loss, improve prepupal survival rate, and move forward the onset of pupation. BSF prepupae were found to stay at shallower depth levels when moisture content exceeded 20% and 70% for vermiculite and wood chips, respectively, which may be due to reduced oxygen availability. Third, I assessed four types of artificial light for their suitability of supporting mating of BSF from two different colonies. The artificial light that matches the spectral sensitivity of photoreceptors of BSF adults led to the highest mating success. Interestingly, artificial light resembling summer sunlight failed to support BSF mating, which may be due to its flickering. Colony effect was also significant on BSF mating success. Moreover, I found an interaction between the light regime and adult density on mean individual female reproductive output and adult survival rate. To optimize the reproductive output of a BSF colony, 8 h of photoperiod would be sufficient for a low adult density (e.g., lower than 800 individuals∙m−3), whereas longer photoperiods may be needed for higher adult densities. Finally, I present the implications that can be drawn from my findings, and my recommendations for future research and the relevant industry.
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    Rearing black soldier fly to convert spent grain to high value biomass : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Engineering at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Somera, Kin Erick
    The main objective of the study was to provide the engineering expertise to upscale the BSF production of Prescient Nutrition. This study was novel as no published work has been found that attempted designing a full-scale plant to produce BSF biomass was done before. However, some facilities may have tried designing and running a full-scale plant. The project focused on rearing BSF larvae to BSF prepupae and was undertaken in partnership with Plant and Food Research (PFR) and Prescient Nutrition. Values of key parameters were obtained from literature and used in the mass and energy balance of the system. The sensitivity of the balances from each parameter was tested and it was deduced that the larvae, prepupae and spent grain must be characterized nutritionally and the time requirement of the larvae to reach the prepupae stage must be confirmed. Several factors were also optimized for the design. The feed load was optimized to 18 g dry weight of spent grain per 1 g dry weight of 1-week-old larvae introduced in the system. The ideal feeding regime for the tested conditions was found to be weekly feeding without frass removal. This regime was selected for the design since this feeding regime resulted in comparable results to the regime with frass removal and is more practical. The feed height of 18 cm was found to not have an adverse effect on the growing patterns of the BSF larvae and hence was used in the design of the system. Using this feeding regime (18:1 ratio, 18 cm depth, weekly feeding without frass removal), the biomass yield was estimated to 3.33 kg dry BSF output per 1 kg dry larvae input. Methods for harvesting larvae from the feed were also explored. It was found that force harvesting through heat (32°C to 39°C) is the most cost effective and simplest way of harvesting larvae from the feed. A pilot study was initially planned with a pilot cabinet that can handle 5 kg wet weight of 1-week-old (1.08 kg dry) larvae and a total of 80 kg wet weight of spent grain (19.84 kg dry, yielding a feeding ratio of approx. 18:1 kg/kg); this pilot unit was fabricated. The larvae were to be grown over 2 weeks to produce 13 kg wet weight of BSF prepupae. However, PFR was not able to provide the necessary larvae for the pilot and hence it was not done. The initial design for the full-scale production was a modular unit that can be placed in the customers’ premises. However, the economics and logistics of this design is expensive, with the transportation costs alone reaching $62 000 per year, and hence a centralized plant operated by 1 operator that can produce a weekly biomass output of 1200 kg dry weight was chosen. This plant will require a land area of about 2000 m² and 26 wet tonnes of spent grain weekly at a feeding ratio of 18:1. The design will have an operational cost of $270 000 a year and a gross revenue of $670 000 a year. The capital for the plant was estimated to be $1 540 000 and the NPV of the plant was estimated to be $2 100 000. The internal rate of return (IRR) for the project was calculated to be 31% which is above the average minimum acceptable rate of return (MARR) for new plants which is 15% (Bizfluent, 2018).