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Item Venison and velvet production from Red and hybrid deer by one year of age : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Animal Science at Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 1996) Min, Byeng-RyelA grazing experiment was conducted at Massey University Deer Research Unit, Palmerston North, New Zealand during 1995, to study the effects of grazing chicory (Cichorium intybus), Lotus comiculatus and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)lwhite clover (Trifolium repens) pasture upon the growth, voluntary feed intake (VFI), venison and velvet production of red and hybrid (0.75 red;0.25 elk) deer from weaning to slaughter at one year of age. The animals were randomly allocated to graze either chicory, lotus or pasture and grazed these forages during autumn and spring using a rotational grazing system, with each group balanced for genotype and sex. All groups were joined to graze pasture during winter, when chicory and lotus were dormant. 1. Few animals attained the target slaughter weight (50kg carcass or greater) when grazing pasture and spiker velvet antler weight was low at approximately 0.2 kg per stag. 2. In this study the greatest advantages obtained for specialist forages were for chicory. Carcass weight of deer grazing chicory was higher than for deer grazing pasture, due mainly to increasing autumn LWG and dressing-out percentage at slaughter, with a smaller response in spring LWG. The largest carcass weights were consistently obtained from hybrid stags grazing on chicory, with values for red deer and hybrid stags being 56.0 and 59.3 kg when grazed on chicory and 48.6 and 53.3 kg respectively when grazed on pasture. Chicory had a higher organic matter digestibility (OMO) and VFI than pasture during autumn but similar values in spring, accounting for its autumn growth stimulation. Carcass subcutaneous fat depth (GR) was higher for deer grazing chicory than pasture, but after being adjusted to equal carcass weight, there was no difference in GR measurement. Relative to deer grazing on pasture, grazing on chicory increased total spiker velvet antler production (323 v 225 g/stag), by advancing the dates of pedicle initiation (18 days), velvet antler initiation (24 days), and first velvet cutting (17 days) and increasing the rate of velvet antler length growth. Initiation of velvet growth was correlated with liveweight, with each 10 kg increase in liveweight advancing the dates of pedicle initiation, commencement of velvet growth and first velvet cutting by 10, 18 and 13 days respectively. Correction of the data to equal liveweight removed a component of the advancement produced from feeding on chicory, but an effect still remained due to chicory feeding per se. It was concluded that grazing chicory not only increased carcass weight (especially in hybrid stags), but also increased velvet antler production. This was achieved by increased VFI and increased OMO of chicory in autumn, relative to deer grazing pasture, and probably by increased absorption of protein and minerals in deer fed chicory. 3. OMO of lotus was higher than that of pasture during autumn, but not in spring. The OMO of either chicory or lotus showed little change between seasons, but pasture changed with the season, being of lowest OMO in autumn and highest OMO in spring. 4. Responses to deer grazing lotus were limited by the reduced number of grazing days that could be achieved, due to problems in lotus establishment. In spite of these problems, grazing lotus (48 gCT/kg OM) did increase the LWG of stags during autumn (248 v 176 g/day) and increased the efficiency of growth in spring, with LWG being similar to deer grazing pasture, but VFI being lower (1.53 v 2.00 kgOM/day) for lotus compared to pasture. Although deer grazing lotus had a similar carcass weight compared to deer grazing pasture, dressing-out percentages of deer grazing lotus were higher than that of deer grazing pasture (56.4 v 53.2 %). The carcass GR tissue depth of deer grazing lotus had similar values compared to pasture. There was no interaction between forage and genotype for carcass weight and dressing out percentage. Stags grazing lotus did not show any advancement in dates of pedicle initiation, velvet antler initiation and weight of velvet production compared to stags grazing pasture. 5. Total condensed tannin (CT) concentration in lotus was 48 and 13 g/kgOM in hand plucked and oesophageal fistulae (OF) extrusa samples respectively. Most CT in hand plucked lotus samples was extractable, with much smaller amounts being protein-bound or fibre-bound. Extractable CT was not detected in lotus OF extrusa samples, and the concentration of protein-bound and fibre-bound CT remained similar to hand plucked samples. Therefore, after chewing during eating, the extractable component of CT in lotus feed could not be extracted and detected by the Butanol/HCI analysis methods and may have been bound to deer salivary proteins. Total CT in both hand plucked and OF extrusa samples was 3.1 v 5.8 g/kgOM for chicory and 0.3 v 1.5 g/kgOM for pasture. As a result, chewing (in OF samples) did not reduce the CT content of pasture or chicory. This may be due to the low concentration of extractable CT (and high proportions of bound CT) in these forages, which may have limited access for the deer salivary CT-binding proteins. 6. Overall it was concluded that chicory was of very high feeding value (FV) and had excellent nutritional advantages for increasing deer production. However, crops of chicory need to have specialised grazing management to increase persistency. New chicory cultivars need to be selected to increase persistency and to reduce reproductive stem formation during summer. Effects of protein supply on initiation of pedicle and velvet antler development in weaner stags grazing fresh forages also needs to be studied. The small responses obtained in the present study give some indication that the CT content of Lotus comiculatus may have a number of values for improving the efficiency of growth in young deer. Further experiments are needed in this area.Item The carcass composition and meat quality of male fallow deer : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University(Massey University, 1985) McCall, Julie ElizabethFallow deer (Dama dama) are rapidly gaining in popularity in New Zealand as a farmed species for venison production. Subjective observations suggest that venison from fallow deer up to 2 years of age has the desirable 'leaness' characteristic. The main objective of this study was to investigate relationships between carcass weight (20-40 kg), age (13, 17 and 25 months), season of slaughter {summer vs. early winter) and aspects of carcass quality in male fallow deer. Groups of male fallow deer raised on pasture near Te Puke (8 animals per group) were slaughtered at approximately 13 months (mid January), 17 months (late May), and 25 months of age (mid January). Average liveweights and carcass weights at slaughter were 43 and 25 kg at 13 months (Ml3), 47 and 28 kg at 17 months (M17), and 60 and 36 kg at 25 months of age (M25). Dressing-out percentage increased from 58.6 to 61.8% over the liveweight range of 41 to 66 kg. The pattern of tissue growth with increasing liveweight was similar to that exhibited by other meat-producing ruminants. Allometric growth coefficients for the four dissected components relative to carcass weight were: muscle, 0.85; bone, 0.62; intermuscular fat, 1.61 and subcutaneous fat, 2.85. Percentage total fat in the carcass was 7.8% in M13, 9.4% in Ml7 and 12.3% in M25 bucks. Low fat contents were accompanied by a high percentage of muscle in the carcass, 74.3% in Ml3, 71.5% in M17, 70.1% in M25, and hence high muscle to bone ratios (mean= 5.5). The mean proportion of the carcass in each commercial cut was neck, 12.6%; flank, 15.4%; shoulder, 17.8%; saddle, 15.5% and haunch, 39.4%. Allometric growth coefficients for the 5 commercial cuts relative to side weight were neck, 1.02; flap, 1.33; shoulder, 0.87; saddle, 1.04 and haunch, 0.91. With increasing carcass weight minor relative redistribution of muscle, fat and bone across the carcass cuts was detected. The decrease in the relative proportion of the carcass in the primal haunch cut was due solely to a decrease in the proportion of bone in the cut. The allometric growth coefficient of bone in the haunch relative to total side bone was 0.76. The saddle was the major site for subcutaneous fat deposition with increasing carcass weight. The allometric growth coefficient of subcutaneous fat in the saddle relative to total side subcutaneous fat was 1.26. The flank was the major site for intermuscular fat deposition with an allometric growth coefficient of 1.29 relative to total side intermuscular fat. There were no differences in the proportions of the total dissected tissues between group M17 (slaughtered in early winter) and groups Ml3 and M25 (slaughtered in summer) other than could be explained by differences in carcass weight. However, the proportion of total muscle weight in some individually weighed haunch and neck muscles were consistently lowest and highest respectively in the M17 group. The chemical composition of the dissected tissues and some individual muscles was determined. The percentage water in the muscle tissue of the M17 group was lower and the percentage protein higher than in groups M13 and M25. The lipid percentage of the fat depots was low (subcutaneous, mean= 58%; intermuscular, mean= 47%). Carcass weight explained 81% of the variation in carcass fat. Fat-depth 'C' and kidney fat weight explained a further 10.3 and 11.3% respectively, of the total carcass fat variation. Meat quality characteristics measured were colour, ultimate pH, tenderness and water-holding capacity. The major meat quality differences were between group M17, and groups Ml3 and M25. Meat colour was darker and water-holding capacity greater in Groups Ml3 and M25. This was attributed primarily to differences in conditions at slaughter. Warner-Bratzler shear (tenderness) values averaged 3.73 kg and 4.68 kg for the mm. longissimus and semimembranosus respectively. These values were lower than those reported for sheep and cattle.Item Venison production from weaner Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 1993) Soetrisno, EdiForty four weaner red deer (Cervus elaphus) fawns (26 stags; 18 hinds) were used to investigate the effects of grazing pure red clover (Trifolium pratense) or perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)/white clover (Trifolium repens) pastures and immunisation against melatonin upon growth and venison production, with the objective of the stags attaining a minimum target slaughter liveweight (92 kg LW;>50 kg carcass) by 12 month of age. The experiment was conducted at the Deer Unit Massey University, NZ, during 1991. The animals were randomly allocated into eight treatment groups (starting on 13 March 1991), with the combination of pasture types ((pure red clover (RC) or perennial ryegrass/white clover (PRG/WC), sex (male or female) and immunisation (against melatonin or placebo only). The deer were rotationally grazed on either RC or PRG/WC pasture (feed allowances 6, 7 kg DM/h/day, respectively) during autumn and spring. During winter, all animals were combined and grazed together on PRG/WC pasture (6 kg DM/h/day feed allowance), at a pasture residual DM of 1100 kg DM/ha. The subcutaneous anti-melatonin injections were administered to the immunisation groups at birth and at weaning. Pre-grazing herbage mass for RC or PRG/WC were respectively 3568, 3706 kg DM/ha in autumn; 2726, 2150 kg DM/ha in spring; 1736 kg DM/ha in winter. Post-grazing herbage mass for RC or PRG/WC averaged at 1822, 1882, in autumn; 1705, 1334, in spring; and 1170 kg DM/ha in winter, respectively. Total nitrogen (N) and organic matter digestibility (OMD) concentration of both feed on offer (FO) and diet selected (DS) were higher in RC than PRG/WC (FO total N: 3.4 vs 3.4% DM in autumn, 4.1 vs 2.6% DM in spring; FO OMD: 77.3 vs 78.6% OM in autumn, 84.5 vs 80.3% OM in spring; DS total N: 4.2 vs 3.9 % DM in autumn, 4.7 vs 3.3% DM in spring; DS OMD: 84.2 vs 83.2% OM in autumn, 87.7 vs 82.4% OM in spring). Liveweight gain (LWG) of RC stags and hinds was significantly higher than PRG/WC animals in autumn (237 vs 207; 197 vs 159 g/d; P<0.01) and in spring (346 vs 281; and 260 vs 188 g/d; P<0.001), but not in winter (94 vs 95; 38 vs 40 g/d; P>0.05). Weaner stags and hinds grazing RC forage had significantly higher voluntary feed intake (VFI) than the comparable animals grazing PRG/WC pasture in either autumn (P<0.05) or spring (P<0.001). By 12-month of age, stags grazing RC were 6 kg heavier and hinds 7 kg heavier than animals grazing PRG/WC forage. All (100%) RC stags attained the minimum target slaughter LW (>92 kg LW; 50 kg carcass) by 12-month of age at the end of November, compared to 90% of PRG/WC stags. Carcass weights (kg) and dressing percentage (%) of RC stags were significantly higher than PRG/WC stags (58.9 vs 53.3 kg, P<0.01; 56.2 vs 52.4%, P<0.001), but the carcass GR was not different (P>0.05) either after or before being adjusted to equal carcass weight. The immunisation treatment did not provide any significant responses (P>0.05) in LWG and did not affect plasma prolactin concentrations. The immunisation against melatonin treatment did not give any significant effects (P>0.05) on all measurements of carcass production. In conclusion, these studies show that early venison production from grazed PRG/WC pastures is possible, and that this can be further improved by inputs of RC. Weaner red deer grazing red clover forage during autumn and spring grew and produced venison better than animals grazing conventional PRG/WC pastures. The immunisation against melatonin did not provide any significant effects on growth and venison production from weaner red deer grazing either RC or PRG/WC forages. RC offers very good potential as a special purpose forage for venison production.Item Public health aspects of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in deer and venison : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment (75%) of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Veterinary Public Health at Massey University(Massey University, 1992) Bosi, EdwinA study was conducted to determine the possible carriage of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and related species from faeces of farmed Red deer presented for slaughter and the contamination of deer carcase meat and venison products with these organisms. Experiments were conducted to study the growth patterns of Y.pseudotuberculosis in vacuum-packed venison stored at chilling and freezing temperatures. The serological status of slaughtered deer in regards to Y.pseudotuberculosis serogroups 1, 2 and 3 was assessed by Microplate Agglutination Tests. Forty sera were examined comprising 19 from positive and 20 from negative intestinal carriers. Included in this study was one serum from an animal that yielded carcase meat from which Y.pseudotuberculosis was isolated. Caecal contents were collected from 360 animals, and cold-enriched for 3 weeks before being subjected to bacteriological examination for Yersinia spp. A total of 345 and 321 carcases surface samples for bacteriological examination for Yersiniae were collected at the Deer Slaughter Premises (DSP) and meat Packing House respectively. A total of 70 venison sausages were purchased from local supermarkets. Direct plating and plating after 21 days cold-enrichment were carried out to examine for Yersiniae. Venison samples were obtained from the DSP and seeded with a known approximate number of Y.pseudotuberculosis organisms. The samples were vacuum-packed and stored at temperatures of +10°C, +4°C, -1°C, -10°C, -13 ±2 °C,and -20°C; recovery and enumeration of the test organism was made at predetermined times. The results of the Microplate Agglutination Tests showed that deer presented for slaughter at this DSP had low (1:10) or undetectable antibody titres to Y.pseudotuberculosis. The prevalence of Yersinia spp, in faeces was 5.3% (19/360) of Ypseudotuberculosis, 2.6% (9/360) of Y.enterocolitica. 3.6% (13/360) of Y.kristensenii, 20.5% (74/360) of Y.frederiksenii. 0.6% (2/360) of Y.intermedia and 0.6% (2/360) of Y.rohdei. Five of nine strains of Y.enterocolitica isolated were found to be potentially pathogenic by means of the virulence marker tests. Two of them were identified as biotype 3 serovar 0:5,27. There was only one isolation (0.3%) of Y.pseudotuberculosis from 321 carcases sampled at the Packing House. The prevalence of Yersinia spp, in venison sausages was 11.4% (8/70) Y.enterocolitica. 1.4% (1/70) Y.kristensenii and 5.7% (4/70) Y intermedia. Y.pseudotuberculosis grew very well in vacuum-packed venison stored at chilling temperature although a long lag phase was observed at -1°C. When frozen, the organisms remained viable for a long period of time and recovered and multiplied rapidly when transferred to chill temperature. The study showed that there was no serological evidence of yersiniosis in deer presented for slaughter during the study period despite the fact that 5.3% of the animals were carrying Y.pseudotuberculosis in their faeces. While there was a low prevalence of Y.pseudotuberculosis on carcase meat their presence could be a source of cross contamination of other carcases especially during deboning. The finding of Yersiniae in venison sausages showed that there was contamination during their preparation. The multiplication of the bacteria in vacuum-packed venison and their long survival in frozen venison are of public health concern while its presence may affect export markets.