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    Do stress, depression and anxiety lead to beliefs in conspiracy theories over time? : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2025-06-28) Fox, Nick
    Prior research has found positive correlations between various indicators of psychological distress such as anxiety, depression and stress, and belief in conspiracy theories. However, whether these relationships reflect causal effects remains unclear. In this preregistered longitudinal study, we tested whether anxiety, depression, and stress affect – and are affected by – belief in unwarranted conspiracy theories. Participants (N = 970) from Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom completed seven monthly online surveys between October 2022 and March 2023. Using a multiple indicator random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), we found support for only one of 15 preregistered hypotheses: a small within-person cross-lagged effect of anxiety increasing belief in conspiracy theories. Conversely, we found no evidence that belief in conspiracy theories increases psychological distress over time. These findings align with other longitudinal studies, suggesting that any reciprocal relationship between psychological distress and conspiracy beliefs is relatively small. This raises questions about the role of distress and existential threat as primary contributors to belief in conspiracy theories.
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    The Generality of Psychosocial Safety Climate Theory—A Fundamental Element for Global Worker Well-Being: Evidence From Four Nations
    (John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2025-08-01) Loh MY; Lee MCC; Dollard M; Gardner D; Kikunaga K; Tondokoro T; Nakata A; Idris MA; Bentley T; Afsharian A; Tappin D; Forsyth D
    Occupational health and safety researchers and policymakers often rely on organisational theories and evidence to provide valuable information for effective policy making and understanding. Yet, most traditional and contemporary organisational theories are developed within a single nation, often in high-income countries. Therefore, cross-national validation is required for generalisable worldwide use. The current study focuses on an antecedent to workplace health and safety, that is, the psychosocial safety climate (PSC), and aims to investigate if PSC is an etic (i.e., universally applicable) or emic (i.e., nationally/context specific) theory. Across nations, we investigate the construct meaning of PSC by testing PSC measurement invariance and the invariance of a nomological network of PSC relationships, (1) PSC to co-worker to work engagement (PSC extended Job-Demands Resources (JD-R) motivational pathway), (2) PSC to co-worker support to psychological distress (PSC extended JD-R health erosion pathway), and (3) the moderation of PSC on the co-worker to outcomes relationship. A total of 5854 employees from four nations (Australia = 1198, New Zealand = 2029, Malaysia = 575, Japan = 2052) participated in the study. Multi-group structural equation modelling suggested that there was measurement invariance in a four-factor PSC model across the four samples. Findings from multigroup analyses support both the PSC extended motivational and health erosion pathways across nations, as well as the moderation effect of PSC in the Australian and Japanese samples. Together, the results largely support the etic nature of PSC construct and theory, with a few national nuances.
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    Longitudinal study : the impact of COVID-19 on older New Zealander’s psychological wellbeing : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Health Science (by thesis) in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Rahman, Jodie
    Background: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was identified in December 2019 and rapidly spread across the globe. Lockdowns, social isolation and distancing, and mask mandates were among the responses introduced to prevent the spread of the virus. Extensive global research has demonstrated that the implementation of protective measures had a significant adverse psychological effect on older adults, who are widely seen as a particularly vulnerable demographic group susceptible to the disease. Consequently, this population was subjected to more stringent and lengthier restrictions. The short and medium psychological impact of COVID-19 and its response have been well documented in academic literature. However, little is known about the enduring effects over an extended period of time. Aim: To explore the long-term psychological impact of COVID-19 on older New Zealander. In addition, explore changes in psychological wellbeing indicators across the three years and the variations linked to socio-demographic characteristics. Method: Participants (M= 69 years) were drawn from the longitudinal study of older adults (N=6,454 [n = 1,963 Māori]). Data from three waves (2020, 2021 and 2022) were used. Psychological wellbeing was assessed with measures of Loneliness (using the de Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale), Depression (using the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale), Anxiety (using the General Anxiety Inventory), Mental Health (using the Short Form Health Survey), and Quality of Life (using the World Health Organisation Quality of Life measure and the Control, Autonomy, Self-realisation, Pleasure scale). Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted, followed by a Spearman's rho correlation, direct regression analyses and a series of repeated measures Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) were conducted to address the research questions. Results: In 2021, a comparative decline was observed in all measures, followed by an improvement in 2022, with the exception of Anxiety which was similar across all three years. Bivariate correlations demonstrated significant associations between psychological wellbeing indicators and socio-demographic variables. Logistic Regression revealed Age, Employment, and SES as key predictors of psychological wellbeing among older New Zealanders. However, when considering the subsequent ANCOVA results across Time, Age, and Socioeconomic status emerged as the most salient predictors. The interaction effects between Time and Age, as well as Time and Socioeconomic status , indicated that the relationship between psychological wellbeing outcomes and Time varied with different Ages and based on their level of Socioeconomic status. These interactions showed that those with lower Socioeconomic status in 2022, and who were younger consistently experienced the highest levels of Loneliness, Depression and Anxiety and lowest levels of Mental Health and Quality of Life across Time. Furthermore, those aged 75 and above, and those with low Socioeconomic status, did not recovery as quickly as the other groups in 2022. Conclusion: This study offers insights into the psychological wellbeing of older adults in New Zealand. Collectively, it highlights their resilience, with Age being recognised as a protective factor; though, those 75+ did not recover as quickly as the other groups in 2022. However, as this demographic is not a single homogenous group, other socio-demographic factors greatly influenced their outcomes. The study illustrated that being employed can function as a safeguard during disruptive events such as a worldwide pandemic, highlighting the need for policy measures focused on enhancing job prospects for older adults. Furthermore, the study revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the existing disparity across socioeconomic categories. It is important that policymakers and healthcare organisations prioritise support and resources for those in disadvantaged communities to ensure equitable access to mental health services to reduce their vulnerability to adverse outcomes, especially during a crisis such as a pandemic.
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    The role of psychological flexibility on headache severity following mild traumatic brain injury : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of the Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) Johnston, Lydia
    Several studies have confirmed there is a relationship between psychological factors and the experience of ongoing symptoms following a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). However, there is mixed evidence about which psychological factors. One emerging factor is psychological flexibility, a concept with theoretical foundations and which can be increased through Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). While other studies have looked at psychological flexibility and overall symptoms, there is benefit in looking more specifically at one symptom. One of the most prominent symptoms following mTBI are headaches, however there is not, currently, a complete understanding of what factors may lead to the experience and severity of headaches following an mTBI. This study obtained data from 149 participants through concussion clinics throughout the North Island of New Zealand at clinic intake, and at six months follow up 100 participants continued to participate. We measured psychological flexibility through the AAQ-ABI(RA), psychological distress through the DASS-21, and headaches through one item on the RPQ. The findings from these individuals supported all our hypotheses. Specifically, we found significant associations through multiple regression analysis between lower psychological flexibility and higher severity headaches at two time points: baseline and six months follow-up. We also found an association between psychological flexibility at baseline and headaches at six months follow-up. We also completed mediation analysis which found a significant influence of psychological flexibility on the relationship between psychological distress and headache severity at the same time periods. These results indicate that psychological flexibility may be a key mechanism in the experience of headaches after mTBI. Our results suggest that targeting psychological flexibility through ACT may help to improve the severity of headaches after mTBI.