Understanding attacks by kea (Nestor notabilis), an endemic parrot, on sheep (Ovis aries) in the South Island high country : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University/Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa, Manawatū, Aotearoa New Zealand
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Date
2019
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Massey University
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Abstract
Human-wildlife conflict is a complex global issue that can have negative impacts on
wildlife species and human livelihoods. An ongoing example of such conflict in
Aotearoa New Zealand occurs between high country sheep farmers and kea (Nestor
notabilis). This study is the first to document the conflict since attempts were made in
the early 20th century. My aims were to: 1.) review the historical records of the conflict,
and estimate the number of kea killed under a 100+ year bounty scheme; 2.)
characterise sheep wounds attributed to kea attacks (‘kea strike’), and estimate the
current prevalence and associated risk factors; 3.) survey high country farmers’
experiences with and perspectives of kea strike; 4.) examine behaviours that potentially
underpin kea strike via experimental tasks presented to wild kea. I estimated that at least
116,869 kea were killed historically as a result of the bounty scheme. The majority of
sheep wounds attributed to kea strike were in the loin (lumbar) region, and the wound
prevalence was low (0–1.25%). However, it should be noted that the prevalence
reported by farmers can be higher, and that higher kea strike frequency results in
considerable economic and welfare costs for some high country sheep stations. Risk
factors included station location, breed (Perendale), class (ram), and age (>1 yr). The
results of an anonymous online survey of high country sheep farmers showed that less
than half of the farmers reported kea strike, with low estimates of sheep injuries and
losses, and a decrease of kea strike over the past 25+ years, which may have resulted
from decreasing kea numbers and changes in sheep flock management. More than half
of the farmers thought that only some kea attack sheep, which is consistent with the
long-standing concept that kea strike is instigated by ‘rogue’ kea (problem individuals).
Individual kea differed in innovative problem solving performance, exploration
tendency and neophobia, and exploration tendency was linked with social rank and innovation. I propose that high ranking males that are innovative and exploratory may
initiate kea strike. Understanding the drivers of kea strike can be used to inform
conservation management decisions regarding farmer-kea conflict, to the benefit of kea,
high country sheep farmers and their stock.
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Keywords
Kea, Behavior, Sheep, Losses, New Zealand, Human-animal relationships