Energy in New Zealand apple production : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Doctor of Philosophy in Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Date
2010
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Massey University
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Abstract
Agriculture is the largest contributor to the New Zealand economy, and apple (Malus
sp.) production is a significant component of that. Apples are exported from New
Zealand to global markets, including Asia, the UK, Europe and North America. New
Zealand prides itself on a ‘clean green’ image, and its agricultural industry, while
already recognized as highly efficient, has sought to move towards sustainability. To
further understand the sustainability of its production systems, the New Zealand apple
industry sponsored a study to measure energy inputs into those systems.
Global food supply chains impinge on a broad range of issues, and have attracted
academic commentary from a range of academic disciplines, ranging from the
sciences and social sciences to the humanities. This inter-disciplinary study was
structured as a scientific investigation of energy inputs into New Zealand farm level
and post-harvest apple production (to destination port), with a parallel examination of
the research process from a philosophical and systemic frame of reference. The
author examined boundary judgments and presuppositions, drawing from the
philosophical concept of tacit knowledge. The research process was structured so that
outputs might contribute to further studies following the life cycle assessment (LCA)
framework. Aspects of LCA methodology were therefore examined, particularly the
construction of sustainability indicators.
The most significant contributions to the New Zealand apple production supply chain
were found to be shipping (4.24 MJ kg-1), packaging (1.46 MJ kg-1), followed by farm
processes (1.45 MJ kg-1) and post harvest processes (0.51 MJ kg-1). The total system
inputs were 7.7 MJ kg-1. The philosophical and systemic inquiry found that LCA
methodology should take further account of normativistic elements to sustain the
claim of being an holistic or systemic methodology. The meaning of sustainability
indicators was found to be materially affected by tacit knowledge imbedded in
apparently value-free metrics, and further affected by tacit assumptions imbedded in
the LCA methodology itself. An approach (total life cycle intervention) was
proposed, incorporating aspects of soft-systems thinking, taking account of critical
system heuristics (CSH), and systemic intervention approaches.
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Keywords
Apple industry, Apple production, Energy consumption, Environmental sustainability, Food miles, New Zealand