Raising rural rainbows : how rural contexts shape caregiver wellbeing, responses, and youth wellbeing in Aotearoa : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Distance, New Zealand

Abstract

Rainbow youth in Aotearoa New Zealand experience disproportionately high rates of mental distress compared to their non-rainbow peers. Emerging evidence highlights the decisive role of caregivers in shaping these outcomes through their wellbeing and responses in diverse sociocultural contexts. However, little research has examined how these family processes operate across rural and non-rural contexts. This quantitative cross-sectional study addressed this gap through a nationwide survey of 152 caregivers of rainbow youth under 30 years of age. Participants reported their own wellbeing, their young persons’ wellbeing, caregiving responses, experiences of affiliate stigma, and access to rainbow affirming resources. Analyses compared rural (n = 20) and non-rural (n = 132) caregivers. Although mean level differences between rural and non-rural caregivers were minimal, patterns of association revealed meaningful contextual variation. Across the sample, greater caregiver wellbeing was associated with greater youth wellbeing, with tentative evidence that this relationship was stronger in rural contexts. Greater caregiver wellbeing was associated with fewer negative caregiver responses across contexts and with more positive caregiver responses only in rural contexts. Negative caregiver responses were associated with lower youth wellbeing across rural and non-rural contexts, whereas positive caregiver responses were associated with greater youth wellbeing only in rural contexts. Affiliate stigma was associated with lower caregiver and youth wellbeing as well as fewer positive and more negative caregiver responses across both rural and non-rural contexts. Accessing rainbow affirming resources was associated with fewer negative caregiver responses in rural contexts only. This thesis provides one of the first quantitative comparisons between rural and non-rural caregivers of rainbow youth in Aotearoa. Findings position caregiver wellbeing as an important correlate of rainbow youth wellbeing and highlight caregiver responses as a potential mechanism through which rural contexts may enhance wellbeing outcomes for rainbow young people. While longitudinal research is needed to establish temporal relationships, findings extend minority stress theory by positioning caregivers as active agents that shape youth outcomes. Practically, this thesis underscores the need to strengthen caregiver wellbeing and ensure equitable access to affirming resources, particularly for rural families, where resources remain limited yet profoundly impactful.