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Item A new approach to volcanic geoheritage assessment in the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Earth Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Nemeth, BoglarkaThe concept of conserving geoheritage was announced in 1991 because of concern about the disappearing geological and geomorphological integrity from the Earth's surface. The degradation imposes a high risk on resilience and future scientific work. Geology-related research has primarily been linked to natural hazard mitigation studies and mineral resource exploration and management. In this study, we build a conceptual framework for geoheritage conservation to incorporate geoeducation into land use planning in Auckland. The study's main goal is to assist geoheritage conservation initiatives in the Auckland Volcanic Field (AVF) by providing a synthesis of concepts and their integration into a GIS environment for successful policy implementation. In the lack of clearly defined values, the valuer must rely on their own perception of value that is shaped by cultural, economic and scientific background. The peer-reviewed scientific literature contains a collection of concepts that need to be organised into a framework. The difficulty of quantifying the benefits of protecting scientific value led to the inclusion of cultural, touristic, aesthetic, recreational and biotic values. Scientific value in the light of economic benefits can be easily overviewed as we revealed it through a meta-analysis of influencing factors on the conceptual background of geoheritage implementations. A conceptual framework must reinforce Geoeducation as the essence of geoheritage. Geopreservation Inventory is the result of a collaboration of New Zealand Earth Scientists under the leadership of Bruce Hayward. The recognised geoheritage sites still wait for recognition and inclusion in urban planning under a clarified geoheritage preservation plan. From a broad aspect, the outstanding features are all small-volume volcanoes, but the inventory clearly reflects their diverse nature. It is seen from the map that none of the features that were assigned the highest importance is typical tourist destinations. The landforms are classified by the Topographic Position Index of the area based on the one-meter digital elevation model produced from high-resolution light detection and ranging (LiDAR) point cloud data. The classified landforms, geology map and Geopreservation Inventory are aggregated into a Geoeducational Capacity Map. The high geoeducation capacity areas are compared with the areas receiving high visitation in order to understand the role of scientific value in land use planning. The high indigenous value of geoheritage sites is assessed from a cultural aspect. The communities need to be involved with promoting geoeducation from geoscientific and indigenous aspects to increase the depth of geoheritage and bring the concept closer to the society to create resilience and a sense of respect for the relicts of geology.Item The use of the conservation estate in the settlement of Treaty of Waitangi claims : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology/Zoology at Massey University(Massey University, 1998) Vertongen, Baden AnthonyThe effect of the Treaty of Waitangi on New Zealand's conservation estate through the settlement of Treaty of Waitangi claims, and the Department of Conservation's requirement under the Conservation Act 1987 to have regard for the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi is introduced. The importance of the Treaty of Waitangi Settlement process and the controversy surrounding the role of the conservation estate in this process is also discussed. A background to the Treaty of Waitangi settlement process is presented and three major land claims and their resulting settlements are examined as case studies. These are the Tainui-Waikato raupatu claim, the Whakatohea claim, and the Ngai Tahu claim. The potential impact of each of these settlements on the ownership and management of New Zealand's conservation estate is discussed and compared with the impact of the Department of Conservation's current commitment to the Treaty of Waitangi through it's Kaupapa Atawhai Strategy on the management of the conservation estate. It was found that the settlement of Treaty of Waitangi claims has had little impact on New Zealand's conservation estate. Only very small areas of the conservation estate have had ownership transferred to claimants, and the area of land managed by the Department of Conservation has increased as a result of Treaty settlements. Treaty of Waitangi settlements have also had little impact on the management of New Zealand's conservation estate, as many of the redress instruments included in settlements are similar to the objectives and policies included in the Departments of Conservation's Kaupapa Atawhai Strategy. Future Treaty of Waitangi settlements are also unlikely to have a significant impact on New Zealand's conservation estate, and are likely to become more effective through improved consultation with the public and conservation interest groups and the closer involvement of the Department of Conservation's Kaupapa Atawhai section in the settlement process.Item Promotion or protection : the management of tourist visitation to New Zealand's Antarctic and sub-Antarctic territories New Zealand as a case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Studies in Management Systems at Massey University(Massey University, 1993) Wouters, Mariska MariekeAntarctica and the sub-Antarctic islands are among the last regions on earth that are still relatively unspoilt from human activity. At the same time, they are also among the last tourism frontiers in the world. The forms of tourism, trends, impacts and the current management mechanisms are described and assessed. New Zealand is offered as a case-study because it is experiencing increased visitation to its Antarctic and sub-Antarctic territories. As claimant to a section of Antarctica and signatory to the Antarctic Treaty, New Zealand has a vested interest in preserving this unique area. As the operator of Antarctic bases, it is probable that the New Zealand government may be called upon to provide assistance to tourist expeditions in the Antarctic. New Zealand companies are involved in tourist visits to the sub-Antarctic islands. Attention is drawn to areas of concern, and the various policies New Zealand applies to Antarctic and sub-Antarctic ecotourism are analysed. The need for a sustainable tourist management regime is examined, in order to balance the paradox between preservation and visitation. The varying aspects of international and national management regimes to manage Antarctic and sub-Antarctic tourism are discussed. Antarctica is managed by an international system, whereas the sub-Antarctic islands are subject to national legislation. This has implications for tourism management in these regions. It is questioned whether the present tourist regulations are adequate to protect the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic environments from the impacts of tourism. It is suggested that the current mechanisms are not sufficient, and the establishment of an International Convention on Antarctic and sub-Antarctic Tourism is proposed.Item Ecopoetry and the imaginative impulse : a critical and creative thesis presented for paper 139.861 to fulfill the requirements of the Master of Creative Writing, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2015) Newman, JanetThis thesis uses two methods of investigation – a critical essay on the poetry of Dinah Hawken and a collection of poetry – to explore the relationship between contemporary poetry and the natural world. The critical essay examines Hawken’s nature poetry published in eight collections in New Zealand between 1987 and 2015. In order to better understand her intentions and techniques, it explores her work alongside an investigation of ecopoetry, a genre that arose in the latter half of the twentieth century. It begins with a brief summary of the rise and various definitions of ecopoetry, and explains how Hawken’s work aligns with the genre’s basic terms of reference. However, it sets Hawken apart from much ecopoetry, arguing that though at times her work explicitly references human environmental degradation, it more often portrays nature as resilient, not vulnerable as nature is typically depicted in ecopoetry. Specifically, this thesis argues that Hawken’s nature frequently models ways for people to better cope in a technological age. Many of her poems draw a link between inner and outer worlds, that is, between nature and consciousness. In these ways, her work is distinct from much ecopoetry which is polemic. Polemic ecopoetry tends to rely on literal descriptions and rhetorical assertion because its primary aim is to raise awareness of environmental concerns. Instead, Hawken’s work often aligns with a critical school of thought that suggests there is a larger catchment of ecopoetry that includes those poems more akin to a Romantic engagement with nature, specifically the notion that nature has a positive effect on consciousness. Such poetry uses the language of figure and imagination. The essay explores the ways in which Hawken has negotiated the tension between the polemic most often associated with ecopoetry and a poetry of perception that is more Romantic in its aesthetics, during the thirty-five years she has been writing about relationships between people and the natural world. The creative component of the thesis is a collection of my poetry that has been shaped and informed by the investigation of the critical essay. My poetry, too, struggles with the tension between poetry of polemic and of perception as it explores relationships between people and nature with an awareness of environmental concerns. In some cases, it adapts strategies and techniques observed in Hawkens work. For example, some of the poems project nature as modeling composure and resilience. By suggesting that nature is important to us, these poems are implicitly ecopoetic. Other poems are more in line with mainstream ecopoetry. For example, some draw explicit attention to environmental degradation, particularly settler deforestation for farming in New Zealand resulting in the loss of indigenous trees and birds and their replacement by destructive exotics. Other poems contemplate the constructedness of landscapes so familiar they seem natural. Throughout the writing of these poems, I have become aware of the need to temper polemic and to aim for perception in order to gain the emotional resonance important in lyric poetry.Item Implementation of sustainable resource management : a process for environmental evaluation, Aorangi Awarua case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Resource and Environmental Planning at Massey University(Massey University, 1992) Beanland, Ruth Ann"Implementing Sustainable Resource Management - A Process for Environmental Evaluation" is a review and discussion of the theoretical concepts associated with sustainability; and the development of these into practical guidelines for implementation. Regional councils have a legislative responsibility to carry out sustainable resource management. This implies a commitment to ecological sustainability; the management of resources within the life supporting capacity of the environment, and the recognition of all of the environmental effects (costs) associated with resource use. Implementation of sustainable resource management will require the development of a set of practical guidelines and tools. Such mechanisms necessarily range from the conceptual to the practical, and will include general principles relating to the concept of sustainability and legislative tools such as regional policy statements, regional plans and resource consents. A "Model for Sustainable Resource Management" has been developed which allows for the integration of the ecological, economic and social schools of thought. A programme for environmental and performance monitoring and the development of appropriate indicators is a prerequisite for sustainable resource management. Such a programme will enable and assist with the identification of environmental limits. The requirement for a process for the assessment of the effects of current and proposed resource use on the environment is also emphasised. Rather than develop all of these mechanisms in detail, this thesis focuses on the development of an "Environmental Evaluation Process" within the planning context, for the determination of the adverse environmental effects associated with resource consent applications in New Zealand. The natural environment has value independent of the instrumental or mechanistic (use) value attributed to it by human beings. These values can be categorised as non-use and intrinsic. Traditional analytical techniques such as Environmental Impact Assessment, Cost-Benefit Analysis and Planning Balance Sheet are useful in terms of identifying, organising and attributing dollar terms to tangible environmental costs and benefits. However, these methods do not go far enough. For a comprehensive analysis of any resource management issue, the true environmental costs of "development" must be incorporated into the decision making process. Contingent valuation method is the most appropriate method for non-market valuation of natural resources and environments. A process for environmental evaluation (which includes the Contingent Valuation Method) has been developed and applied to the Aorangi-Awarua Case Study. The Thesis concludes with some recommendations as to the implementation of sustainable resource management, with particular reference to the practicality of parts and all of the Process for Environmental Evaluation for use by regional councils.Item Prey, predator, human and climate change interactions in the Himalaya, Nepal : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2013) Aryal, AchyutThis thesis evaluates prey-predator, climate change, and human-wildlife interactions in the Nepalese Himalayas and contains 12 scientific papers which were prepared from 2009-2012 to explain these interactions. The content of this thesis is categorised into four broad themes; wildlife ecology, human-wildlife conflict, the influence of climate change on human-wildlife interactions, and recommendations for developing strategies to balance wildlife conservation and human needs in Nepal. The findings summarized below based on their relevant themes. In the study of human wildlife conflict in the upper Mustang region, Nepal, I recorded a total of 1,347 km2 of pasture land utilised by the local people from six village development committees, 706 livestock animals were killed during the study period by predators (equivalent to US$44,213 every two years), and 75% of the total livestock predation was attributed to snow leopards. I also found that the movement of livestock drives the snow leopards to lower elevations and into closer proximit to villages. Rangelands are considered to be critical ecosystems in the Nepalese Himalayas and provide multiple ecosystem services that support local livelihoods. This study analyses the conflict over the use of rangeland by two villages in Mustang, Nepal. The conflict suggests that excessive demand for limited rangelands motivates local villagers to gain absolute control of the resources. In such contexts, external support should focus on enhancing the management and production of local foraging resources, which requires the establishment of local common property institutions to facilitate sustainable rangeland management. The northern Barandabhar Forest Corridor (BFC) in southern Nepal, which consists of 10,644 ha with 15 community forestry (3,184 ha) that connects Chitwan National Park to the Mahabharat range, was studied. BFC has the potential to contribute to the improvement of Nepal’s ecological integrity. We propose that the northern BFC should be managed via a 5 new participatory scheme, the Barandabhar Forest Management Council, to foster ecological integrity of the area while providing forest products to communities. The presence of brown bears in the Manasalu Conservation Area and Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal, was confirmed. Results showed that brown bears are potentially distributed between 3800 m and 5500 m in the high mountainous region of Nepal, across an area of 4037 km2. Small mammals were the preferred prey of brown bears (75%) with marmots (Marmota himalayana; 46%) being the largest contributor to brown bear diet. Finally, a three stage brown bear conservation programme is recommended: (a) detailed research activities both inside and outside protected areas of Nepal (b) livelihood and conservation awareness support at local and national level (c) strengthening of the local capacity and a reduction in human-wildlife conflict in the region. The Nepalese Himalayas provide habitat for the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its principal prey species, the blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). A total of 939 Blue sheep were recorded at altitudes ranging from 3209 to 5498 m on slopes with gradients of 16–60° and aspects of 40°NE to 140°SE. The upper Mustang had the lowest population density of blue sheep recorded within their distribution range in Nepal (0.86 blue sheep/km2). It is estimated that the existing blue sheep population biomass of approximately 38,925 kg in the upper Mustang region could support approximately 19 snow leopards (1.6 snow leopards/100 km2). Habitat suitability analyses of snow leopards in Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal indicated that an area of 3248 km2 was suitable for snow leopards. Genetics analysis of the collected scats were successfully genotyped (62%) using 6 microsatellite markers, and identified as having originated from five different individuals and suggested minimum home ranges of 89.4 km2 (male) and 59.3 km2 (female). Microhistological analysis of scats (n=248) 6 revealed that blue sheep are the primary prey species (63%) and that livestock contributed 18% of the snow leopard diet. The Hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus) is one of the least studied endangered small mammal species in the world. The diet and habitat use of the hispid hare was studied at Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), Nepal. The population density of the hispid hare was 5.76 individuals/km2. Hispid hares mostly prefer grasses (Saccharum spontaneum and Imperata cylindrica) and more that nineteen plants were indentified in their pellets. The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) was found to inhabit warmer valleys close to water resources in areas between 3200m and 5300m above sea level. Plant diversity was higher in the marmot habitat. Seventeen of plants were recorded in marmots scats over three seasons (summer, autumn and spring). Soil pH, organic matter and organic carbon were not significantly different in habitat occupied by marmots compared to area where marmots were absent. Phosphorus (P2O5) levels were significantly higher and potash (K2O) levels significantly lower in marmot burrow habitat. I found that the average annual temperature in the upper Mustang region has increased by 0.13 °C per year over the last 23 years. A predictive model suggested that the mean annual temperature will double by 2161 to reach 20 °C in the upper Mustang region. A reduction in suitable agricultural, grassland, and forest land was recorded. Furthermore, grasses and many shrub species are no longer found in abundance at higher elevations and consequently blue sheep move to forage at lower elevations which attracts snow leopard (Panthera uncia) from their higher elevation habitats to lower sites, where they encounter and depredate livestock. Increased crop raiding by blue sheep and depredations of livestock by snow leopards have adversely impacted the livelihood of local people.Item Māori involvement in natural resource management in Aotearoa New Zealand : do statutory processes create benefits? : a thesis for the partial fulfilment of the requirements for Master of Philosophy in Science, Māori Resource & Environmental Management [at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand](Massey University, 2011) Latimer, Tina PatriciaMaori have been under represented in natural resource management in Aotearoa New Zealand since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi 1840 (Te Tiriti o Waitangi), and the establishment of the British Government in New Zealand in the 1850’s. The establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal in 1975 as an independent commission of inquiry has provided a valuable role and assisted Maori in achieving recourse to land heritage entitlement and natural resource management through making recommendations to proprietary rights. The Declaration of Independence and the Treaty of Waitangi are currently before the Waitangi Tribunal to determine their validity in New Zealand municipal law. Notwithstanding, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples supports Maori human rights but is yet to be incorporated into domestic law in Aotearoa New Zealand. The reform of natural resource management in Aotearoa New Zealand in the 1990’s and in particular the Resource Management Act 1991, has partially paved a way forward in developing policy for Maori participation in the statutory application of natural resource management. However, the exemption of Maori proprietary rights to minerals, the conservation estate, marine and coastal area (foreshore and seabed) and compensation thereof remains a contentious debate for Maori. For this reason, Maori proprietary rights and statutory representation to land heritage entitlement and resource management continues to remain at the forefront of Maori contemporary grievances in Aotearoa New Zealand. Treaty of Waitangi settlement legislation partially mitigates historical grievances created by the Crown and their representative agencies. However, the progress of compensating and providing redress to Maori for the alienation of natural resources has been slow-moving since the first national fisheries Treaty settlement in 1992. Eighteen years on Maori continue to seek a meaningful relationship with the Crown Page | iii to achieve parity for the Maori people as the indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand. Providing Maori with their own legislation and opportunities to participate at a local government level in the application of statutory management of natural resources is one means of achieving this. A greater respect of the Treaty partnership can provide a pathway forward and resolve the indifferences that have been long-standing since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. Revamping the constitution of Aotearoa New Zealand and ensuring the same within a national Maori statutory body representing hapu and iwi is another means of balancing the inequities that have existed between Maori and the Crown over the last 170 years is also another means of achieving parity in Aotearoa New Zealand.