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    Skilled migrant women : evolving or devolving careers : a study exploring the unfolding career experiences of skilled migrant women : a dissertation presented in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Human Resource Management at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Odedra, Nimeesha
    This research explores how the career experiences of skilled migrant women unfolds over the first ten years in their host country, New Zealand. Most scholars have classified ‘skilled’ migrants as people on the move, possessing tertiary or professional qualifications and/or professional experience at the time they leave their home countries to seek employment elsewhere (Al Ariss & Syed, 2011). Women comprise almost half of the skilled migrants approved permanent residency in New Zealand, and they bring with them skills, qualifications and experience that are highly advantageous to organisations in today’s competitive marketplace. However, their skills are often under-utilised, and while this has repercussions for the migrant women themselves, it can cost organisations substantially in lost productivity. Although some studies have explored the career experiences of skilled migrant women, relatively little is known about the complex interplay of factors that shape their career pathways, or how skilled migrant women utilise their agency in navigating their career in the host country. To address this gap, this study provides a deeper contextual understanding of the career experiences of skilled migrant women in New Zealand by exploring their experiences through the lens of contemporary migration and career theories. This research is guided by the question: how do the career experiences of skilled migrant women unfold in their host country? There were two underlying research objectives: i) to provide more in-depth understanding and meaning to the life and career experiences of skilled migrant women, and ii) to contribute to existing migration and career theories by exploring the applicability of career and migration theories to the career experiences of skilled migrant women. This study adopts an interpretivist philosophical approach aligned with a constructionist stance which focuses on how the participant makes sense of their career, specifically on how they construct and experience their career in New Zealand (which is the host country context of this study). A career life history approach is utilised as this is appropriate for an exploratory nature of this study, allowing participants to reconstruct events subjectively and meaningfully in their social and cultural context and in their own words. By embracing a holistic classification of career, this research takes into consideration the whole life perspective of the participants’ careers. The findings of this study were informed by 40 semi-structured life narrative interviews conducted with skilled migrant women in New Zealand. Thematic narrative analysis of the data was used to shed light on how skilled migrant women’s experiences aligned with contemporary migration and contemporary career theoretical frameworks. The migration theoretical frameworks examined in the course of this study are the relational perspective (Syed, 2008), the integrated model (Tharmaseelan et al, 2010), the highly skilled migrant women's career development framework (van den Bergh & Du Plessis, 2012), the skilled migrant’s qualification-matched employment model (Shirmohammadi et al, 2018), modes of engagement (Al Ariss, 2010), and theory of motivation to integrate (Cerdin et al., 2014). The three-phase career model (O'Neil & Bilimoria, 2005) and the kaleidoscope career model (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005) were the contemporary career theories examined. This study focuses on the evolving/devolving career experiences skilled migrant women have due to the major disruption of international career transition. In contextualising the findings of this study, three theoretical contributions to the understanding of how skilled migrant women’s careers unfold are made. The first contribution is to existing international migration literature. The second contribution this study makes is to career theories. The third, and critical, contribution this study makes is the nexus of international migration and career literature together. The careers of skilled migrant women are under-explored and under-theorised in both these literatures. In addition, by adopting an exploratory life history approach and utilising a lifeline perspective, which anchored critical events, enabling participants to reconstruct experiences subjectively and meaningfully in their own words, this study makes a key methodological contribution. This study adds to the body of knowledge on skilled migrant women, both as a group and as individuals, which may be of strategic benefit to organisations thus making a practical contribution. This study does have some limitations, and further research could mitigate some of these. First, the study was undertaken in New Zealand. A comparative study undertaken in other countries would be informative and beneficial. Secondly, a more diverse and representative sample would be favourable. Thirdly, a more diverse representation of participants in terms of the LGBT+ community and the additional challenges they may face would make this study more inclusive. Finally, potentially a quantitative study could be applied to approach a broader research scenario.
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    Developing unbiased artificial intelligence in recruitment and selection : a processual framework : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Albany, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) Soleimani, Melika
    For several generations, scientists have attempted to build enhanced intelligence into computer systems. Recently, progress in developing and implementing Artificial Intelligence (AI) has quickened. AI is now attracting the attention of business and government leaders as a potential way to optimise decisions and performance across all management levels from operational to strategic. One of the business areas where AI is being used widely is the Recruitment and Selection (R&S) process. However, in spite of this tremendous growth in interest in AI, there is a serious lack of understanding of the potential impact of AI on human life, society and culture. One of the most significant issues is the danger of biases being built into the gathering and analysis of data and subsequent decision-making. Cognitive biases occur in algorithmic models by reflecting the implicit values of the humans involved in defining, coding, collecting, selecting or using data to train the algorithm. The biases can then be self-reinforcing using machine learning, causing AI to engage in ‘biased’ decisions. In order to use AI systems to guide managers in making effective decisions, unbiased AI is required. This study adopted an exploratory and qualitative research design to explore potential biases in the R&S process and how cognitive biases can be mitigated in the development of AI-Recruitment Systems (AIRS). The classic grounded theory was used to guide the study design, data gathering and analysis. Thirty-nine HR managers and AI developers globally were interviewed. The findings empirically represent the development process of AIRS, as well as technical and non-technical techniques in each stage of the process to mitigate cognitive biases. The study contributes to the theory of information system design by explaining the phase of retraining that correlates with continuous mutability in developing AI. AI is developed through retraining the machine learning models as part of the development process, which shows the mutability of the system. The learning process over many training cycles improves the algorithms’ accuracy. This study also extends the knowledge sharing concepts by highlighting the importance of HR managers’ and AI developers’ cross-functional knowledge sharing to mitigate cognitive biases in developing AIRS. Knowledge sharing in developing AIRS can occur in understanding the essential criteria for each job position, preparing datasets for training ML models, testing ML models, and giving feedback, retraining, and improving ML models. Finally, this study contributes to our understanding of the concept of AI transparency by identifying two known cognitive biases  similar-to-me bias and stereotype bias  in the R&S process that assist in assessing the ML model outcome. In addition, the AIRS process model provides a good understanding of data collection, data preparation and training and retraining the ML model and indicates the role of HR managers and AI developers to mitigate biases and their accountability for AIRS decisions. The development process of unbiased AIRS offers significant implications for the human resource field as well as other fields/industries where AI is used today, such as the education system and insurance services, to mitigate cognitive biases in the development process of AI. In addition, this study provides information about the limitations of AI systems and educates human decision makers (i.e. HR managers) to avoid building biases into their systems in the first place.
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    Acculturation, social dominance, and systemic discrimination at each degree of employment : exploring their roles at different steps towards decent work for skilled Indian migrants in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Hariswamy, Sumedha
    Access to decent work is a major obstacle for skilled Indian migrants e.g., to New Zealand, but little is known about the key steps through unemployment, under-employment, and full employment. Unlike previous research which has conglomerated all steps into one, this thesis explores the roles of acculturation, social dominance, and systemic discrimination in skilled Indian migrants' career trajectory at each step of employment separately, and then combined them into an overall but graded model. Taking an exploratory approach, an online questionnaire based on Flanagan's (1954) Critical Incident Technique focused on positive and negative critical incidents of job-hunting at each step of employment (unemployment, entry-level, intermediate-level, and full employment). Forty-four skilled Indian migrants completed the survey by providing direct experience of the positive and negative critical incidents encountered throughout their job-hunting journey. Eight content analyses were conducted for positive and negative critical incidents in the four stages of employment. The themes of networking, work experience, and skills and qualifications were crucial at all four steps of employment as depicted in Figure 1. However, as skilled Indian migrants stepped closer to full employment, the themes of work experience and skills and qualifications emerged more frequently in successful job hunting, rather than being a consistent barrier from progressing towards full employment in a skilled Indian migrant's job-hunting journey. This is perhaps to be expected since the work experience and skills and qualifications would be increasingly relevant, as skilled Indian migrants got closer to full employment. Networking was a consistent theme across all stages of employment. This thesis identified whom the respondents networked with which informed which acculturation style was used by skilled Indian migrants. When skilled Indian migrants networked with Indian community members, they adopted the separation acculturation style. When the respondents networked at an organisational level with recruitment agencies and ex-employers, they adopted the integration acculturation style. Systemic discrimination theory was not well supported, as the themes of work experience and skills and qualifications which were predicted to be systemic barriers, were found to be more relevant to human capital theory in conjunction with social dominance theory. Discussion recommends that future studies compare the responses between both skilled Indian migrants and New Zealand employers. Finally, the findings of the present research have the potential to be a blueprint for newcomer skilled Indian migrants to form strategic pathways to attain full employment in New Zealand. The results of this study can be tailored to the particular stage of employment a newcomer skilled Indian migrant is currently in, and it can inform them of which job-seeking behaviours best worked at the same stage of employment for other skilled Indian migrants in New Zealand.
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    Selection bias operating against skilled candidates from countries-of-origin other than New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2003) Coates, Kim Michele
    New Zealand is opening up its borders to attract skilled migrants to fill occupational shortages highlighted as important for New Zealand's economic and social development. Despite highly skilled immigrants gaining residency, many are unable to secure employment in their area of expertise. This logjam suggests that there are specific human factors such as selection biases operating against candidates from certain countries in the New Zealand employment context. The issue of selection bias was addressed by examining the perceived similarity between country-of-origin to country-of-destination, and the perceived social dominance of country-of-origin vis-Ȥ-vis country-of-destination. Eighty Subject Matter Experts with approximately 10 years experience participating in/watching selection panels completed a scenario format that elicited their estimates of Human Resource and Line Managers' selection preferences for jobs in twelve key occupations. Candidates were presented as coming from countries-of-origin that varied from Australia to Southern and South East Asian, Southern African, and Pacific Island nations, but were otherwise equally skilled, qualified for the given job, and costly to employ. Despite this equality of match to the job, there were significant biases for and against different countries-of-origin. Specifically, candidates from countries-of-origin perceived to be more similar to New Zealand, and candidates from countries-of-origin perceived to be socially dominant, were preferred over candidates from countries-of-origin less similar and subordinate. The discussion focuses on improving the methodology, and opening up the discussion field for future research.
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    Career break or broken career? : mothers' experiences of returning to paid work : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2007) Ang, Ee Kheng
    Servicemen returning from two World Wars were granted assistance in finding work, retraining and other benefits in recognition of the sacrifices they had made. Yet mothers' returning to work after time out bearing and raising children are reliant on a booming economy to obtain even limited entry to the labour market, and the work obtained is very often inferior to the jobs held by women before becoming mothers. Currently due to lower fertility rates and the ageing populations of the world's richer nations, a shortage of working-age people is predicted to continue into at least the middle of the twenty-first century. To overcome this shortfall, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) advises its member states to assist mothers to return to paid work sooner. Most OECD nations are complying, with varying degrees of success. Some policy frameworks make this goal more easily attainable than others. Mothers in liberal welfare states often return to paid work later than they might otherwise prefer. Many returners are overqualified for the work they are doing. While there appears to be relatively few barriers to re-entry, the choice of re-entry occupations are limited and returners are predominantly offered low status jobs with no career opportunities at the back of the job queue and gender queue. Mothers who interrupt their careers by taking a career break for childbearing and rearing generally face downward occupational mobility and loss of lifetime incomes. This thesis assesses the experiences of mothers who return to employment in one liberal nation, New Zealand. It applies Esping-Andersen's three models of welfare states and Reskin and Roos' gender queues model to the situation of returners. The study investigates the precise nature of the obstacles and processes encountered by a number of mothers attempting to resume a career. It argues that social policies matter: returners in countries where state intervention is more widespread and where there is universal, extensive and generous social provision and support for working mothers are economically better off. The research methods include in-depth interviews and a focus group with mothers, a mail questionnaire and interviews with employers, and a study of recent and current New Zealand and overseas government policies to assist working parents. The findings of this thesis are that regardless of skill levels, New Zealand returners are consigned to low status occupations where they are not fully integrated into the 'normal' full-time workforce with career opportunities. These mothers generally suffer more than one episode of returning to the back of the queue. They also earn less (weekly and annually) than mothers who do not take career breaks. The study identifies social policy frameworks and employers' policies and practices as factors contributing to the processes whereby returners are relegated to the back of the queue. Although New Zealand has recently brought in policies to assist mothers to return to paid work these initiatives have not addressed the processes that currently confine returners in low status, part-time employment. Policies similar to those created to specifically target the needs of ex-servicemen would go a long toward assisting mothers to access higher status and better-paid jobs at the head of the queue. The thesis concludes with policy recommendations to facilitate mothers' integration into such jobs.