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Item Foliar Application of Oil Palm Wood Vinegar Enhances Pandanus amaryllifolius Tolerance under Drought Stress(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2023-02-09) Mohd Amnan MA; Teo WFA; Aizat WM; Khaidizar FD; Tan BC; Jiang L; Chen M; Guo YDrought stress severely threatens plant growth, yield and survivability. Wood vinegar, formed by the condensation of smoke produced during biochar production, has been shown to promote plant growth and enhance stress tolerance. They have now been recognized as a sustainable alternative and are frequently used exogenously to support plants coping with environmental stress. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of oil palm wood vinegar (OPWV) in mitigating the adverse effects of drought stress on Pandanus amaryllifolius. The optimal concentrations and frequencies of OPWV application were determined before the drought treatment. The results showed that the imposed drought stress negatively affected the plant growth parameters but applying OPWV at 1:500 dilution at 3-day intervals for 12 days increased its tolerance. These include increased leaf relative water content, root-to-shoot ratio, relative stem circumference, chlorophyll pigments and antioxidant enzyme activities. In contrast, the drought-stressed plants treated with OPWV showed decreased relative electrolyte leakage, hydrogen peroxide, proline, malondialdehyde, and enhanced drought-responsive gene expressions, such as HSP70, GAPDH, and Thau, while ENO and β-Fruc were reduced. These biostimulatory effects of OPWV might be due to several antioxidant compounds, such as anthranilic acid, tetrasiloxane, syringol, guaiacol, and catechol. Altogether, our results showed the effectiveness of OPWV in alleviating the adverse effects of drought stress, and as such, OPWV could be potentially applied in agriculture.Item The Water Footprint of Pastoral Dairy Farming: The Effect of Water Footprint Methods, Data Sources and Spatial Scale(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2024-02) Higham CD; Singh R; Horne DJ; Gerbens-Leenes WThe water footprint of pastoral dairy milk production was assessed by analysing water use at 28 irrigated and 60 non-irrigated ‘rain-fed’ pastoral dairy farms in three regions of New Zealand. Two water footprint methods, the WFN-based blue water footprint impact index (WFIIblue) and the Available WAter REmaining (AWARE) water scarcity footprint (WFAWARE), were evaluated using different sets of global or local data sources, different rates of environmental flow requirements, and the regional or catchment scale of the analysis. A majority (~99%) of the consumptive water footprint of a unit of pastoral dairy milk production (L/kg of fat- and protein-corrected milk) was quantified as being associated with green and blue water consumption via evapotranspiration for pasture and feed used at the studied dairy farms. The quantified WFIIblue (-) and WFAWARE (m3 world eq./kg of FPCM) indices ranked in a similar order (from lowest to highest) regarding the water scarcity footprint impact associated with pastoral dairy milk production across the study regions and catchments. However, use of the global or local data sets significantly affected the quantification and comparative rankings of the WFIIblue and WFAWARE values. Compared to the local data sets, using the global data sets resulted in significant under- or overestimation of the WFIIblue and WFAWARE values across the study regions and catchments. A catchment-scale analysis using locally available data sets and calibrated models is recommended to robustly assess water consumption and its associated water scarcity impact due to pastoral dairy milk production in local catchments.Item Grape yield analysis with 3D cameras and ultrasonic phased arrays : a thesis by publications presented in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024-01-18) Parr, BadenAccurate and timely estimation of vineyard yield is crucial for the profitability of vineyards. It enables better management of vineyard logistics, precise application of inputs, and optimization of grape quality at harvest for higher returns. However, the traditional manual process of yield estimation is prone to errors and subjectivity. Additionally, the financial burden of this manual process often leads to inadequate sampling, potentially resulting in sub-optimal insights for vineyard management. As such, there is a growing interest in automating yield estimation using computer vision techniques and novel applications of technologies such as ultrasound. Computer vision has seen significant use in viticulture. Current state-of-the-art 2D approaches, powered by advanced object detection models, can accurately identify grape bunches and individual grapes. However, these methods are limited by the physical constraints of the vineyard environment. Challenges such as occlusions caused by foliage, estimating the hidden parts of grape bunches, and determining berry sizes and distributions still lack clear solutions. Capturing 3D information about the spatial size and position of grape berries has been presented as the next step towards addressing these issues. By using 3D information, the size of individual grapes can be estimated, the surface curvature of berries can be used as identifying features, and the position of grape bunches with respect to occlusions can be used to compute alternative perspectives or estimate occlusion ratios. Researchers have demonstrated some of this value with 3D information captured through traditional means, such as photogrammetry and lab-based laser scanners. However, these face challenges in real-world environments due to processing time and cost. Efficiently capturing 3D information is a rapidly evolving field, with recent advancements in real-time 3D camera technologies being a significant driver. This thesis presents a comprehensive analysis of the performance of available 3D camera technologies for grape yield estimation. Of the technologies tested, we determined that individual berries and concave details between neighbouring grapes were better represented by time-of-flight based technologies. Furthermore, they worked well regardless of ambient lighting conditions, including direct sunlight. However, distortions of individual grapes were observed in both ToF and LiDAR 3D scans. This is due to subsurface scattering of the emitted light entering the grapes before returning, changing the propagation time and by extension the measured distance. We exploit these distortions as unique features and present a novel solution, working in synergy with state-of-the-art 2D object detection, to find and reconstruct in 3D, grape bunches scanned in the field by a modern smartphone. An R2 value of 0.946 and an average precision of 0.970 was achieved when comparing our result to manual counts. Furthermore, our novel size estimation algorithm was able accurately to estimate berry sizes when manually compared to matching colour images. This work represents a novel and objective yield estimation tool that can be used on modern smartphones equipped with 3D cameras. Occlusion of grape bunches due to foliage remains a challenge for automating grape yield estimation using computer vision. It is not always practical or possible to move or trim foliage prior to image capture. To this end, research has started investigating alternative techniques to see through foliage-based occlusions. This thesis introduces a novel ultrasonic-based approach that is able to volumetrically visualise grape bunches directly occluded by foliage. It is achieved through the use of a highly directional ultrasonic phased array and novel signal processing techniques to produce 3D convex hulls of foliage and grape bunches. We utilise a novel approach of agitating the foliage to enable spatial variance filtering to remove leaves and highlight specific volumes that may belong to grape bunches. This technique has wide-reaching potential, in viticulture and beyond.Item The application of nanobubbles in agriculture : this thesis is submitted in accordance with the regulations, governing the award of the degree of Master of Engineering with Honours in Chemical and Bio Process Engineering, Department of Chemical and Bio Process Engineering, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023-06) Gibbon, Ian PeterNanobubbles have an extensive range of applications across engineering and industry. Our area of interest lies in agriculture and horticulture: Irrigation, using water enriched with oxygen nanobubbles, has been shown to greatly improve crop yields when compared to irrigation with untreated water. Currently, there are no manufacturers in New Zealand producing nanobubble generators to meet the requirements of large-scale irrigation. Field trials were undertaken, to quantify the increase in plant and crop growth through irrigation with oxygen nanobubbles. The results showed a marked increase in root mass and crop growth, supporting the viability and development of a nanobubble generator. The purpose to this thesis is to provide the research, testing and development of nanobubble tubes leading to a commercially viable, scalable nanobubble generator. Research was carried out to provide an understanding of the science behind nanobubbles. Applying this knowledge to the iterative process of design, print, test and evaluate, allowed comparisons to be made for various tube designs and allowed one design to be selected and taken forward for commercial development. Test results show that the optimum tube design, in terms of performance, is a compromise between the dissolved oxygen readings taken from the product water and the head loss across the nanobubble tube. The results also showed that smaller multiple tube arrangements out-performed large-scale single tubes. This led to a patent application for a multi-tube design. This thesis describes the 3-D printing of nanobubble tubes, nanobubble generators and current commercial installations under evaluation. The thesis concludes by discussing future development opportunities for the nanobubble generator.Item Changing methodology results in operational drift in the meaning of leaf area index, necessitating implementation of foliage layer index(John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2018-01-08) Rapson GLLeaf area index (LAI) was developed to describe the number of layers of foliage in a monoculture. Subsequent expansion into measurement by remote-sensing methods has resulted in misrepresentation of LAI. The new name foliage layer index (FLI) is applied to a more simply estimated version of Goodall's "cover repetition," that is, the number of layers of foliage a single species has, either within a community or in monoculture. The relationship of FLI with cover is demonstrated in model communities, and some potential relationships between FLI and species' habit are suggested. FLIcomm is a new formulation for the number of layers of foliage in a mixed-species' community. LAI should now be reserved for remote-sensing applications in mixed communities, where it is probably a nonlinear measure of the density of light-absorbing pigments.Item The internationalization strategy of agricultural co-operatives in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriCommerce at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Aini, HarumiThe global market is transforming rapidly as globalization is influenced by advanced information, communication, and technological development. Companies in the food and agricultural sector, including agri-food cooperatives in New Zealand, have embraced these global trends. Many agricultural co-operatives in New Zealand (NZ) have been successful in growing their business globally by implementing different internationalization strategies. This study analyses how co-operatives internationalize and the factors that influence them in the decision making of internationalization. The key objectives of the study were to outline the internationalization process of the agricultural co-operatives in NZ, to identify the internationalization strategies chosen by the agricultural co-operatives studied, and to analyze the factors that influence the internationalization decision. The present research was conducted using a multiple-case study from two chosen agricultural co-operatives in New Zealand. The Tatua Co-operative and Alliance Group Co-operative were selected as the participants because of their successful history of internationalization in the dairy and red-meat industry. The participants were selected by using a purposive sampling method in order to ensure that insights from the important and relevant actors were included. A qualitative approach, using semi-structured interviews for primary data and annual reports for secondary data, was implemented to obtain the information. The cross-case analyses were performed to compare the results of both co-operatives. The two co-operatives studied could be considered as born-global because they went into the global market soon after their establishment. Even though they are born-globals, they internationalized in a gradual way. The external factors of internationalization were analyzed using the Porter’s Five Forces Analysis. Based on the competitive position, both co-operatives are still using the export-based strategy as their main strategy of internationalization, and each implement a focus strategy and differentiation of products to be successful in the global market. The internal factors that have influenced the choice of each internationalization strategy were identified in this study. The most influencing factors for both co-operatives are network and experience. The other influencing factors are human resources. Both cooperatives agree that financial resources are more considered in foreign direct investment than exporting because they expose bigger risk. This study also reinforces that technology does not have the largest role in accelerating the internationalization process of the cooperatives. Lastly, the challenges vary for each strategy and are perceived differently by each co-operative.Item New Zealand's food system is unsustainable : a survey of the divergent attitudes of agriculture, environment and health sector professionals towards eating guidelines : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Jones, RebekahBackground: The United Nation’s (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) address the adverse health and environmental changes associated with changes in the food and nutrition system. In one of its many sustainable development initiatives, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO) has called for sustainable diets, which align with SDG 2, Zero Hunger, and SDG 12, Sustainable Consumption and Production. The inclusion of sustainability characteristics in New Zealand’s (NZ) eating and activity guidelines (EAGs) would contribute to directly addressing the SDGs and lead to achieving sustainable diets. This study aimed to evaluate the agreement among sectoral professionals of including sustainability characteristics within the guidelines. Methods: Professionals within the agriculture, environment and health sectors were invited to complete an online survey to establish agreement with sustainability characteristics. Opinion and attitude questions were completed using a 5-item Likert scale. One-way ANOVA analyses were conducted to compare the level of agreement with the inclusion of sustainability statements of the three professional sector groups. A one-way ANCOVA analysis was undertaken to detect a difference in means of the sectoral levels of agreement whilst controlling for covariates. Post-hoc tests were used to determine where the significant differences in opinion lay between the sector groups. Results: Overall, 298 (65% female) respondents completed the survey from the agriculture (37%), environment (22%) and health (41%) sectors. Two-thirds (66%) of respondents were over 35 years and 90% had a tertiary education. Two-thirds (63%) of respondents disagreed with the statement that NZ’s current food system is sustainable; sector respondents from health (77%) and environment (78%) had greater disagreement than agriculture (35%) (P = 0.00). Overall, 77% of respondents agreed that sustainability characteristics should be included in guidelines; with greater agreement from health (90%) and environment (84%) versus agriculture (58%) (P = 0.00). Five sustainability characteristics received unanimously high levels of agreement (> 90%) for inclusion: dietary diversity (97%), sustainable seafood (90.8%), to limit processed foods (90.7%), reduced food waste (95.3%) and sustainable lifestyle behaviours (97.2%). Agreement for eight sustainability characteristics was higher for health and environment versus agricultural sector (P < 0.05). There was relatively lower level of agreement from all three sectors, particularly environmental (68.7%), to consume recommended serves of dairy products. Only 38.5% of all respondents agreed with the inclusion of “organic food produce”. Respondents who agreed with the inclusion of sustainability characteristics were more likely to be familiar with the EAGs and to agree NZs current food system is unsustainable. Conclusion: Professionals from the agriculture, environment and health sectors of New Zealand largely support the inclusion of sustainability characteristics within NZ’s EAGs. However, there are areas of divergence that need to be addressed for their successful development and implementation.Item Creative capacity building : enhancing participatory design with rural Cambodian farmers: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Drain, Andrew RolfThe development of technology to address challenges faced by underserved communities in developing countries has become the focus of many engineers and designers in the Western world. However, to date, such technologies have not had the level of positive impact and long-term adoption predicted. Research shows this is due to contextually-driven factors not being taken into account, such as a lack of locally available materials and skills, harsh environmental conditions and a lack of buy-in from the community. Projects which include the community in the process of identifying and prioritizing the challenges they face, generating ideas and building prototypes, have been proven to be more effective at creating solutions that are accepted and maintained. This process, known as Participatory Design (PD), is growing in popularity. However, PD practitioners still struggle to facilitate true collaboration with communities with documented challenges focusing on communities having a lack of understanding of design, problem solving and creativity as well as a lack of confidence and motivation to contribute to a long-term PD project. This study aims to resolve this challenge by utilizing knowledge from the field of Creative Capacity Building (CCB); an education-focused field that looks to improve an individual’s ability to independently problem solve and innovate through structured, hands-on training sessions. Based on literature, a CCB programme was designed, to be completed at the beginning of a long-term PD project. This aimed to be succinct, engaging and socio-culturally appropriate to the specific community. A six-month, multi-case study was undertaken with several partner organizations in rural Cambodia. The study aimed to collaborate with rural people with disability, to create technology that improved their ability to engage in agricultural practices. Results showed that the implementation of CCB positively affected the community’s ability to contribute contextual insights to the project as well as their understanding of the design process and motivation to contribute. CCB was not found to improve the community’s ability to critique existing designs or their ability to create prototypes, competencies that were already strong; nor their ability to generate ideas, a competency that was weak. Other findings included a positive relationship between the use of making-style activities and community motivation, an inverse relationship between group size and community ability to express opinions and a new conceptual model to describe the collaborative partnership between designer and community. Keywords: participatory design; capacity building; agriculture; developing context; humanitarian technology development; humanitarian engineeringItem Telling stories about farming: Mediated authenticity and New Zealand's Country Calendar(SAGE Publications, 2022-01) Fountaine S; Bulmer SMediated authenticity in New Zealand’s Country Calendar (CC) television program is explored from the perspective of its producers, and rural and urban audiences. Paradoxically, CC is understood as both “real” and “honest” television and a constructed, idyllic version of the rural good life in New Zealand. Techniques and devices such as a predictable narrative arc, consistent narration, invisible reporting and directing, and naturalized sound and vision contribute to the show’s predictability, ordinariness, spontaneity and im/perfection, mediating an authentic yet aspirational view of farming life. We elucidate how factual, primetime television contributes to a shared national sense of “who we are” while navigating different audience experiences and expectations. At stake is New Zealanders’ attachment to rural identity, which underpins public policy commitments to the farming sector, at a time when new agricultural politics are increasingly contested.Item Themes of connection and progress in rural television: New Zealand’s Country Calendar 1990–2015(SAGE Publications, 2020-02) Fountaine SAiring for over 50 years, New Zealand’s Country Calendar (CC) television show tells the stories of those who live and work on the land. This article presents a thematic analysis of 25 years of programme content, identifying a balance of ‘connection’ and ‘progress’ themes across this time frame, linked to the political economy of NZ broadcasting and agriculture. The concept of the rural idyll helps explain the connection theme’s focus on family, community, a passion or dream, and history and tradition. However, CC’s version of the rural idyll goes beyond nostalgia and the expression of shared social ideals to include the practical, day-to-day ‘work’ of contemporary farming. Ultimately, CC’s content is shaped by the broadcasting and agricultural policies and structures which impact its funding, subjects and socio-economic environment.