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    A study of Paul A. Samuelson's Economics : making economics accessible to students : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2000) Smith, Leanne
    Paul A. Samuelson is the founder of the modern introductory economics textbook. His textbook Economics has become a classic, and the yardstick of introductory economics textbooks. What is said to distinguish economics from the other social sciences is the development of a textbook tradition. The textbook presents the fundamental paradigms of the discipline, these gradually evolve over time as puzzles emerge, and solutions are found or suggested. The textbook is central to the dissemination of the principles of a discipline. Economics has, and does contribute to the education of students, and advances economic literacy and understanding in society. It provided a common economic language for students. Systematic analysis and research into introductory textbooks is relatively recent. The contribution that textbooks play in portraying a discipline and its evolution has been undervalued and under-researched. Specifically, applying bibliographical and textual analysis to textbook writing in economics, examining a single introductory economics textbook and its successive editions through time is new. When it is considered that an economics textbook is more than a disseminator of information, but a physical object with specific content, presented in a particular way, it changes the way a researcher looks at that textbook. This thesis examines the sixteen editions of Economics as a physical object, and its content. Through this examination it is possible to see how Samuelson made economics accessible to students. A central question is has Economics evolved as the world around it has changed? Samuelson has a very student-oriented approach when writing his textbook. Readers of Economics come to understand economic concepts through relevant examples. Well-known people and events are used by Samuelson to illustrate economic theory and present economic ideas. In Economics Samuelson presents the principles of mainstream economics. He also portrays the social, psychological, political, and historical landscape of the time. Samuelson's Economics provides the non-professional economist (the student, businessperson, politician etc) with the principles of economics, presented in ways that are relevant to them, and relate to the issues they see and face in the world. Economics has not remained static; rather, it has developed over time. The ability of Economics to evolve has been the key to its survival
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    The role of foreign direct investment in socio-economic development : a case study of Vietnam during the transition period : a thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Turitea Campus, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2001) Pham, Hoang Mai
    The role of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the socio-economic development of developing countries, especially countries in transition toward a market-oriented economy, has been the topic of debate between several schools of thought, notably the mainstream and radical views. The mainstream view argues that FDI flows cover the savings-investment, foreign exchange, technological and fiscal gaps in developing countries, and hence promote economic growth. In contrast, the radical view argues that FDI flows are detrimental to socio-economic development, they have not supplemented but substituted for domestic savings, and thus they have deteriorated the balance of payments and failed to address poverty problems in developing countries. In reality, FDI flows have provided positive impacts on socio-economic development in some developing countries, especially Asian newly industrialising countries (NICs), but generated many detrimental effects in other developing countries. In Asian NICs, FDI flows tend to be useful and have fewer detrimental effects because the governments of those countries have intervened appropriately and created favourable environments for FDI through implementing export-oriented industrialisation strategies. In the case of Vietnam, about $35.3 billion of FDI was committed, of which $14.2 billion was implemented, over the 1988-1998 period. Such large amounts of FDI flows have created significant impacts on the socio-economic development of Vietnam. Over the 1988-1998 period, FDI flows have accounted for around one-third of Vietnam's investment, over 20 percent of Vietnam' exports in 1998 and overall, between 1 percent to 1.5 percent of annual GDP growth. However, the unequal allocation of FDI flows between regions and provinces in Vietnam may promote socio-economic development in some regions and provinces but also widen the gap between rich and poor regions. The overall success of attracting and utilising FDI flows in Vietnam has been attributed to the role of government policies that maximise the positive impacts and minimise the detrimental effects of FDI flows. Government's tax preference policies and domestic protection policies have been found to play an important role in the performance of foreign-invested enterprises.
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    Transfer of sustainable energy technology to developing countries as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emission : the case of Bangladesh : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied and International Economics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2001) Ali, Mohammad
    Over the last two decades the world has been becoming increasingly concerned about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, global warming, unsustainable development, and poverty in the developing countries. The most acceptable way of mitigating GHG emission is the use of sustainable energy technology (SET) instead of fossil fuel. SET is available in the global market, but is outside the scope of availability for many developing countries. Due to the lack of economic and technical capabilities and wide-spread poverty, developing countries are unable to introduce SET independently, hence a need for appropriate assistance from developed countries. The case study was conducted in Bangladesh, one of the poorest countries in the world, with acute shortages of energy and largely disadvantaged rural population. The study assessed three energy technologies-biomass, solar, and wind-to identify the most viable options of SET for the rural Bangladesh. The appropriateness of the proposed SETs is assessed on the basis of certain criteria: availability of resources, cost-effectiveness, degree of technological complexity, matching demand and supply, and contribution to reducing GHG emission. It has been found that each SET taken separately, has its limitations. The main barrier for biomass energy technology is the availability of biomass due to scarcity of land, and hence, producing food is preferable to growing trees for fuel. The major limitations for solar and wind energy technologies are high levels of capital investment and technological complexity. The study proposes a combination of biomass, solar, and wind SETs as a long-term solution of energy crisis in the rural Bangladesh. It suggests relevant policy and types of assistance in the form of investment in education and training, machinery, spare parts, know-how etc. A brief proposal for capacity building has been prepared. It is expected that the proposed SETs will benefit sustainable development, poverty alleviation of rural Bangladesh, and the national socio-economic conditions. The study findings contribute to general knowledge, and are especially useful for developing countries.
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    Tourism, power and politics : the challenges of Maasai involvement in tourism development : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Ondicho, Tom Gesora
    This study explored the broad issues of power and politics associated with Maasai involvement in conservation-oriented tourism development in Amboseli, Kenya. Central to the study was the analysis of the intricate power interrelationships arising from the dynamic economic and political interactions between local actors and external tourism stakeholders. The study specifically looked at how and on what terms the Maasai were involved in tourism development, the nature of their engagement with outsiders, the initiatives they have undertaken to gain closer control over the organisation and economics of tourism, and the opportunities and constraints associated with this development process. Two case studies were used to analyse the experiences of Maasai communities living around Amboseli National Park (from 2005 Game Reserve): community-based wildlife and cultural tourism. A political ecology framework was used as a lens to understand community conflicts and struggles for political control over tourism-related resources (natural and financial). A multi-sited ethnographic approach featuring participant observation, focus group discussions, textual analysis of documents, and in-depth interviews, was used to collect data over twelve months, with intermittent breaks, between November 2003 and August 2005. The findings reveal that Maasai involvement in tourism development is a comparatively recent occurrence and is being promoted by the Kenyan government as a management tool to reconcile the interests of conservation and local communities. Despite the potential for tourism to bring benefits for local communities, stimulate local support for conservation efforts, and local development, the study found that due to competition and political rifts between clans, age-sets and on the basis of political allegiance, Maasai had not benefited as much as they should from the immense tourism potential in their area. Rather than empowering the Maasai to take control over tourism and their own development, tourism had facilitated the exploitation of the area’s tourism potential by foreign tourism investors and tour operators, the government, and a few local elites. Insights from this study shed light on the wider issues of community power and politics in tourism development, in particular the difficulty of ensuring that indigenous communities are not undermined in the face of tourism’s global reach. The study suggests that for the Maasai to realise tourism benefits and support conservation there is an urgent need for social and political justice issues such as equitable distribution of benefits, rights to land resources and livelihoods, and democratic decision-making processes, to be addressed.
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    Profiles and dynamics of the urban informal sector in Indonesia : a study of pedagang kakilima in Bandung : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Suharto, Edi
    This study analyses the ways in which the trajectory of development in Indonesia affects the poor who work in the urban informal sector. Situated in the context of Bandung, the third largest city in Indonesia, this study targets street traders, pedagang kakilima, to pursue three areas of inquiry: the economics of the street enterprises; human development of the traders; and coping strategies of the households. The data cover the period of economic crisis, notably between 1997 and 1999. This allows the study to emphasise how the crisis - along with the processes of capitalist industrialisation and urbanisation - affected the activities and lives of street traders and how they coped with the problems they faced. This study has seen that the current economic crisis in Indonesia, following the advent of structural changes of the 1970s and 1980s, has been followed by the prevalence of employment shifts from the formal to informal sector. At the macro level, the informal sector continues to cater for a majority of total employment in the Indonesian economy and thereby sustains livelihoods, especially of the low-income households. The data on the economics of pedagang kakilima show that profiles of the small and informal enterprises are distinctively different from those of larger and formal businesses. Although a few of the street traders demonstrate characteristics of successful merchants, most of their features still exhibit vulnerability These include volatile incomes, insecure premises, limited economic resources, inadequate technology for advancement, and lack of access to formal financial services. These limitations are generally typical of small-scale production and were already in existence prior to the crisis. On the basis of human development indicators, the findings suggest that there is no automatic link between street trading and poverty, but equally there is no such link belween street trading and prosperity. The widespread economic crisis detrimentally affected pedagang kakilima, especially their economic capital. Reduced consumer demand and price rises, for example, were widely found to diminish income earnings in street trading during the period of recession. With specific reference to human capital, however, it is clear that the crisis had not yet had a detrimental effect on their access to education, health, and housing facilities. Information about coping strategies adopted by street trader households reveals that the urban informal sector is dynamic. Instead of being passive and static, pedagang kakilima make every effort to succeed in the city during economic hardship and try as best as they can to curtail the effect of the crisis. Those participating in this street trading, including men, women and children, prove to be active and creative in the ways they manage and manipulate a threatening situation in both enterprise and household settings. This study ultimately suggests that together with the existing conventional approach, the holistic framework drawn from the human development and coping strategy perspectives can be combined and developed to shape thinking and actions concerning the urban informal sector. This combination will enable research and policy to become more sensitive to the needs and reality of urban development in Indonesia that more often than not neglects the reality of its human, social, and cultural fabrics.
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    Integrating economics and ecology : a systems approach to sustainability in the Auckland region : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ecological Economics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2005) McDonald, Garry
    Urban sustainability has emerged as a central environmental and urban policy issue over the last decade, as our world becomes more urbanised. The purpose of this thesis is to operationalise systems modelling approaches (static, system dynamics) that will lead to improved understanding of urban sustainability in the Auckland Region. The first part of the thesis critically reviews and synthesises both the sustainability and urban development literatures. Consideration of the sustainability literature focuses on the economic, ecological, and thermodynamic interpretations of the sustainability concept, leading to the identification of eight principles used to guide the modelling process. The urban development literature revealed a significant schism between the anthropocentric approach of the social sciences and the more biophysical approach of the ecological sciences. Some suggestions are made on how to resolve this impasse. The static systems (input-output) analysis provided much structural detail about the Auckland Region economic system and its environmental system; more importantly, it also details the interdependencies between these systems. A significant achievement was the construction of a 48 industry physical (mass flows) input-output model of the Auckland Region economy, and how the economy depends on physical flows to and from the environmental system. This dependency of the economic system on natural capital and ecological services was further illustrated by an input-output analysis showing how the Auckland Region economy appropriates ecological services within the Auckland Region. This was supported by an ecological footprinting analysis that revealed how the Auckland Region economy depends on natural capital (land) from outside the Auckland Region economy. The system dynamics modelling extends the static systems analysis, to build the Auckland Region Dynamic Ecological-Economic Model (ARDEEM). This dynamic model is designed to simulate future development pathways for Auckland Region; consequently it contains a number of interconnected modules that represent components critical for achieving urban sustainability in Auckland Region; population, labour force, growth driver (based on an adjusted form of Solow growth theory), economy (financial flows), economy (physical flows), and the economy-environment interface (physical flows). The ARDEEM model's use is illustrated by generating 3 scenarios for the future development of Auckland Region: 'Business as Usual', 'Cornucopian Growth' and 'Prudent Pessimism'. Finally, several areas for future research are discussed. These should try to develop further the theory that underpins urban sustainability modelling, particularly regarding improved integration of disparate theories. The best prospects lie in the future development of ARDEEM, incorporating more sectoral detail (20 - 30 industries), spatial dynamics and ecological processes that were not originally included primarily due to the lack of data
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    An ecological economics of eco-efficiency : theory, interpretations and applications : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ecological Economics at Massey University, Palmerston North
    (Massey University, 2003) Jollands, Nigel Alan
    Eco-efficiency emerged onto the world stage as the business input into the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. The concept has served to bring the business community into the sustainability debate and enabled businesses to demonstrate significant environmental improvement. The concept is also beginning to play a key role in national sustainable development policy. However, the recent interest in eco-efficiency has highlighted several unresolved and sometimes contentious issues which are addressed in this thesis. The overall aim of this thesis is to contribute to the understanding of the eco-efficiency concept and its analytical application by situating the research within an ecological economic framework. This thesis begins by arguing that conventional 'eco-industrial épistémé' interpretations of eco-efficiency are developed within the narrow confines of a world view that is committed to business-as-usual. This assumes controllability of production processes, sees technology as a fix for environmental problems and assumes independence of economic and environmental production processes. This thesis then proposes to broaden the notion of eco-efficiency by applying an ecological economic theoretical framework. This thesis recommends a nested-hierarchy framework of three tiers for interpreting eco-efficiency. The thesis uses ecological economic theory to argue that eco-efficiency must be embedded within physical scale (first tier) and social considerations (second tier). The third (eco-efficiency) tier is interdisciplinary and pluralistic. It encourages a view that perspectives of eco-efficiency are context dependent. It also promotes tolerance and acceptance that all perspectives of eco-efficiency provide important insights into eco-efficiency. Previously, little attention has been devoted to measuring and analysing eco-efficiency for national policy purposes. This thesis develops and applies three promising analytical techniques to aspects of New Zealand's eco-efficiency; Divisia decomposition analysis (for isolating structural and technical components of change), inverse-Leontief based multiplier analysis (for measuring indirect effects) and principal components analysis (for reducing the number of indicators to a manageable level). All three empirical chapters identify the road transport sector as having relatively low and decreasing energy and CO2 efficiencies. This is of concern as the sector has proven to be one of the most difficult to influence from an environmental perspective. Several other sectors warrant attention by virtue of their low eco-efficiency measures; 'other mining', 'other farming', dairy farming, meat products and dairy products. Urgent attention is required to improve the environmental behaviour of these sectors.
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    Accessibility of rural credit among small farmers in the Philippines : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Rural Development, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2006) Poliquit, Lolita Y.
    Credit plays an important role in agricultural development and it is believed that expansion of credit programmes will have beneficial effects on agricultural production and incomes of small farmers. It is also a key to poverty alleviation, livelihood diversification, and increasing the business skills of small farmers. In the Philippines, small-scale and subsistence agriculture source their loans mostly from informal lenders, thus access to formal credit remains low. There is a need to examine further small farmers’ access to credit and investigate their preferences and perceptions regarding credit in order that their access can be improved and their needs through credit can be more effectively met. Determining the problems and the credit needs of small farmers are important considerations in designing appropriate credit systems for them. Accessibility of rural credit in the Philippines was examined, with the primary objective of exploring the use of and access to rural credit by small farmers. This research attempts to explore and understand the perceptions of small farmers toward rural credit, and to collect information in proposing an appropriate credit system for them. Two types of respondents were interviewed for the research; 45 individual farmers, and four key informants in New Corella, Davao del Norte. The research focused on how the farmers perceived the rural credit facilities, their preferences, their reasons for borrowing, and their problems in accessing credit. Qualitative data analysis was done for the information gathered. Access to credit by farmers was limited to the available credit services in the research area, thus farmers’ choices and preferences were not well served which led to borrowing from informal lenders. Credit restrictions such as commodity specific credit programmes, credit that requires collateral, and lengthy and complicated procedures restricted the farmers from accessing formal credit. It is recommended that accessibility to credit by small farmers could be improved by providing innovative financing schemes that address problems of farmers who lack collateral, and minimise long processing of documents and other requirements. In this way, farmers may be encouraged to better utilise formal credit and decrease their reliance on informal lenders, thus avoiding higher interest rates and thereby increasing their farm productivity and household incomes.
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    The politics of economic restructuring in the Pacific with a case study of Fiji : a thesis presented in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Social Policy and Social Work, School of Social and Cultural studies, Massey University, Albany Campus, Auckland
    (Massey University, 2004) Slatter, Claire
    The subject of this thesis is the politics of economic restructuring, euphemistically termed 'reform' in the Pacific. Although structural adjustment policies are essentially neoliberal economic policies, the project of global economic restructuring, and its supposed end, a global regime of free trade, is a political one in several respects. It involves the wielding of economic power over developing countries by powerful multilateral institutions, developed countries and private corporate entities to such a degree that it is considered by some to represent the disciplining/subjugating and dis-empowering of developing states. It is supported by a successfully propagated ideology that combines economic growth theories (held to be infallible), 'good governance' rhetoric (with which no-one can reasonably disagree), and new notions of equality and 'non-discrimination' - the 'level playing field' and 'national treatment, in WTO parlance (which have been enshrined in enforceable global trade rules). It entails redefining the role of the state, transferring public ownership of assets to private hands, and removing subsidies that protect domestic industries and jobs, all of which are strongly contested. Successfully implementing 'reform' is widely acknowledged to require not only 'reform champions' but also 'ownership', and thus broad acceptance and legitimacy, yet commitments to restructuring are often made by government ministers without reference at all to national parliaments. National economic summits are used to rubber stamp or legitimate policies in a fait accompli. The thesis begins by situating the global regime of structural adjustment within the political context of North-South relations in the 1970s, the debt crisis of the early 1980s, and the collapse of socialist regimes and consequent discrediting of the socialist economic model and other variants of state-led development. It shows the key role of the World Bank in advocating the neoliberal model and setting the development aid agenda, and its abdication of this lead role after 1995 in favour of the World Trade Organisation and its agenda of global trade liberalisation. The thesis then examines the origins, agents and interests behind structural reform in the island states of the Pacific before focusing on how a regional approach to achieving regional wide economic restructuring and trade liberalisation is being taken, using a regional political organisation of Pacific Island states (The Pacific Islands Forum), and regional free trade agreements. It then illustrates the path of economic restructuring embarked on by Fiji following the 1987 coups, examines the implementation of 'economic reform' concurrently with policies to advance the interests of indigenous Fijians, and discusses some of the less acknowledged dimensions of reform.
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    Foreign direct investment and its impact on the New Zealand economy : cointegration and error correction modelling techniques : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2004) Raguragavan, Jananee
    Ongoing globalisation has resulted in more liberalisation, integration, and competition among countries. An upshot of this has been higher levels of cross-border investment. Foreign direct investment (FDI), long considered an engine of growth, has led to widespread probe with its recent rapid spread. Nevertheless, while research on the contribution of FDI to host countries has concentrated heavily on the developed and developing economies, there has been a marked neglect of small, developed economies. This study proposes to focus on New Zealand, a country that falls within the latter category. The study seeks to verify econometrically the impact of FDI on the country through causality links with growth, trade, domestic investment and labour productivity. The analysis is based upon time-series data, the econometric techniques of single, autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL), and the multiple equations approach, vector error correction method (VECM). The study found that there have been substantial gains to the New Zealand economy. A positive effect of FDI on the variables mentioned above led to an improvement of the balance of payments through an increase in exports rather than in imports. Economic growth has mainly been achieved through FDI's impact on exports and domestic private investment. The dynamic innovation techniques indicated a bi-directional causality between FDI and the variables. The long-run causality, however, runs mainly from growth and labour productivity to FDI rather than in the opposite direction. Another noticeable feature is that New Zealand's regional agreement with Australia, Closer Economic Relations, has brought the country significant gains in terms of growth and development through FDI. Both the ARDL and VECM approaches suggest that for a small, developed country qualitative impacts are greater than quantitative ones. The policy implication is that maintaining sustainable economic growth with a positive domestic investment environment is vital for attracting foreign investors. New Zealand, while continuing to encourage inward FDI, should aim to channel it into 'innovative' tradable sectors. The challenge lies in providing the right kind of policy mix for this purpose.