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Item Municipal zero waste methodology : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Management at Massey University, Turitea Campus, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Hannon, JonathonThis research originally undertook an extensive literature review, in order to develop a deeper understanding of how the phenomenon of zero waste interrelates with the alternative sustainability-framed movements responding to the crisis of waste and the failures of conventional waste management theory and practice. This initial work was translated into a series of publications that provide content for the foundational chapters (1. Literature review 2, Background/Context and 3. Methodology) of this thesis and provided the basis for identifying the problem statement, research objectives and hypothesis. A key focus of this research involved examining the critique of the zero waste movement, in particular the extreme assertion that, in a municipal context, zero waste is a chronic failure/impossible/doomed and is a super-mega proposition for which there is no blueprint or methodology. The value-proposition for research addressing this critique was established by examining the real-world New Zealand (zero) waste case-setting where a combination of misinformation, lobbying, and policy capture resulted in an abandonment of zero waste and a consequent regression in KPIs of the prior New Zealand Waste Strategy (NZWS:2002) entitled Towards Zero Waste and a Sustainable New Zealand. The published outputs of this research make the case that zero waste approaches can and should be scientific, practically successful, measurable and evidenced, a good economic investment, socially and culturally beneficial, framed in a continuum of learning and evolution, and democratically popular. Additionally, this research has provided new insights to the extreme scope, challenge, and intensely complex disciplinarity of the waste → zero waste transition spectrum. This has enabled visualising and reinterpreting the significant, but largely unmet interdisciplinary requirement of (zero) waste management, as a critical barrier to progress. Based on a three-stage review of policy analysis in (zero) waste management research, a specific methodology of mixed methods content analysis (formally annotated as MMR HCA-T-MZWM quant + QUAL(quant)) was designed to test and explicate the disputed existence of municipal zero waste methodology (MZWM). Detailed quantitative findings converge in the formation of an extensive hybrid embedded qualitative written narrative result that is the illustrated in four final graphic summary illustrations of the hypothesised MZWM. This Ꝏ infinity – continuum model offers a new conception of dynamic integrated elements and interoperative, interdisciplinary clusters comprising the MZWM. The Ꝏ infinity – continuum MZWM model embodies the disruptive, hyper-aspiration of zero waste in seeking maximum transition into a sustainable circular economy, and in extent and detail appears commensurate with the cited super-wicked complexity of waste issues. The Ꝏ infinity – continuum MZWM model provides a simple, yet meaning-laden graphic, abductive bridge between the UNSDG imperative and zero waste’s innovation seeking and transformational ideals. The MZWM represents a key foundation for the critical next-step opportunity to develop an evaluation framework (ideally as an internationally agreed research framework encompassing further learning and experience) to systematically measure and enhance the performance of future municipal zero waste programmes.Item Para Kore : an alternative voice for a zero waste world : a research project presented to Massey University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Institute of Development Studies, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Banfield, JaneIssues of solid waste pollution are viewed as a serious threat to the global Sustainable Development Goals. Waste minimisation in New Zealand centres around a loose government policy framework underpinned by a neoliberal belief in market-driven solutions from the business sector. The traditional ‘waste hierarchy’ model (Reduce-Reuse-Recycle-Recover) remains at the core of legislation, while the more recently developed ‘Circular Economy’ model is increasingly viewed by both state and business sector as offering new hope. However, strategies for waste minimisation in New Zealand are still failing to reduce waste, as exemplified by the annual growth in waste-to-landfill rates. Given the failures mentioned above, this research looked to investigate the merits of an alternative indigenous approach to waste minimisation based upon a different epistemology. Framed by a hope-filled post-development outlook, an in-depth critique of current literature regarding mainstream waste minimisation strategies was undertaken alongside a qualitative case study with Para Kore Marae Inc., a Māori not-for-profit organisation active in 12 regions of New Zealand. The study revealed there are contradictions within mainstream waste minimisation strategies. Resolution of waste issues is constrained by political adherence to neoliberal economic theory which promotes continuous growth in production and consumption. A dominant metanarrative around waste has developed allowing the collective impact of factors incompatible with waste eradication to remain unacknowledged and unaddressed by state actors. The Para Kore model contrasts significantly with technocentric state-led approaches. Para Kore Marae Inc. views solid waste issues through the spiritual lens of kaitiakitanga, the relationship and consequent responsibility of each person to the natural world. For participants adopting a Para Kore approach, intrinsic motivation developed to align waste reduction behaviours with personal values and cultural principles. In addition to reducing waste-to-landfill, the Para Kore approach resulted in holistic improvements to individual and community wellbeing. Cost and time constraints to waste reduction were not found to be an issue. The most significant challenge to the model was ‘burnout’ experienced by the ‘champion’ facilitators. The Para Kore approach is identified as reflecting the emergent post-neoliberal political framework, the ‘Politics of Belonging’. It is concluded that Para Kore’s approach has significant value not only in engendering waste reduction behaviours within organisations and households but also in reinvigorating individual and community wellbeing.Item Assessing the effectiveness of crowdsourced geographic information for solid waste management in Timor-Leste : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Information Sciences (Information Technology) at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) da Conceição Baptista, ElizabethDili, the capital city of Timor-Leste has been faced with serious solid waste problems in recent years. Responding to this issue, the government has adopted various policies including setting up solid waste collection sites in community areas and outsourcing collection to the private sector to collect waste directly from homes in several areas. Despite, these efforts, waste is still found scattered on the roads and disposed of in rivers and open lands. A proper solid waste management strategy is necessary to transform the city into a clean city. In order to develop an effective solid waste management strategy, reliable data and public participation are required. This study, therefore, investigated whether crowdsourcing, in particular, Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) can effectively be used to collect data about solid waste disposal and collection practices in Dili and raise awareness of the impact of waste disposal practices among the public. The study result demonstrated that crowdsourcing is a viable method for collecting solid waste data. Challenges such as collecting accurate location-specific data still remain, hence, the crowdsourced dataset may not entirely substitute for the usual traditional dataset. At this stage, however, the collected data can still be utilized as a supplementary data source. In the future, by improving data collection methodologies, such as using smaller rewards or providing necessary facilities, a crowdsourcing-based data collection method could be utilized as an adequate substitute for traditional data source because of its ability to collect data in real- time with lower operational costs. This approach is feasible for a developing country such as Timor-Leste where critical area such as waste management has less priority for funding.Item The e-waste management behaviours of household consumers in Whangarei, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Blake, Vicktoria MarieE-waste is known to have detrimental environmental, social and economic impacts, and its volume is growing up to three times faster than any other waste stream. Despite this growing problem, and the concurrent increase in detrimental impacts, New Zealand relies on voluntary schemes to manage the estimated 98,000 tonnes of e-waste generated in the country annually. While New Zealand could apply mandatory product stewardship of e-waste under the Waste Minimisation Act 2008, a recent report argued that there was insufficient data available to meet the requirements to enforce the labelling of e-waste as a priority product. This research aimed to generate first-time data on Whangarei household e-waste options, knowledge and behaviours, to inform e-waste management policy, resources and services which could be specifically designed for the district, with the intention that it would work towards providing sufficient data to allow for the mandatory product stewardship of e-waste. Research was conducted by way of online survey which asked Whangarei District residents questions specifically relating to how their households managed e-waste, and what influenced these management decisions. The survey was informed by international literature on the subject, as well as a review local and central government policies, and of the e-waste management resources services available both in the Whangarei District and in New Zealand as a whole. The research found that in the Whangarei District, cost and lack of knowledge of the services available are barriers to engagement in e-waste recycling, similar to international findings. However, contrary to international literature, general recycling behaviours and sociodemographic factors did not significantly influence e-waste behaviours in the district. The research also found that only 1.8% of the estimated e-waste generated in the Whangarei District each year was being recycled through the municipal services available. This figure could be improved via mandatory product stewardship at best, or e-waste recycling goals being set by the district council enable steps towards better services, resources and infrastructure at the very least. Whangarei and New Zealand as a whole are a long way from the appropriate management of e-waste. It is hoped this research, coupled with other information already available in the field, will allow the planning stage to begin toward adaptation to appropriate e-waste management, encompassing the waste hierarchy principles, if not nationally, then at least in the Whangarei District.Item Dairy waste treatment by high-rate trickling filtration, with particular reference to nitrogen : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Technology in Biotechnology(Massey University, 1970) Bennett, Rodney JackThe effective disposal of dairy factory waste is becoming increasingly important in New Zealand. Treatment by high-rate trickling filtration is a successful method in use overseas. For New Zealand conditions, a 'roughing' treatment removing 60 - 90% of the BOD of the waste should be adequate. One objective of this research was the development of a filter capable of providing this treatment. Another objective was the resolution of the controversies between the theoretical and empirical performance-prediction relationships available for trickling filtration. Because nitrogen is receiving a greater emphasis as a pollutant, a third objective was the study of nitrogen removal in dairy waste trickling filtration. The experimental work primarily involved the use of a pilot-scale trickling filter. This was designed using conventional parameters. The filter column was an 18" diameter, 8' long concrete pipe, filled with river stone. An artificial waste compounded from whey and water was fed to the plant at a controlled rate, being diluted with flow from a 25 gallon recirculation tank prior to application to the column. The treated waste overflowed from the recirculation tank and was discharged. The plant was operated at the high organic loading intensities of 1.3 - 2.7 lb BOD/yd 3 day, and at the high recirculation ratios of 20 - 55 : 1. The levels of BOD and organic, ammoniacal, nitrite and nitrate nitrogen were measured in the feed and settled effluent at different recirculation ratios. Aqueous suspensions of biomass collected from the plant were incubated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, in the presence of a variety of carbonaceous and nitrogenous additives. The nitrogen balance of these suspensions was studied. The plant fulfilled its design function of providing a 'roughing' treatment, as it removed 60 - 85% of the feed BOD. The experimental data did not support the available performance- prediction relationships, and hence the controversies between these relationships were not resolved. The pilot plant performance could be described by the equation Y = 17.778 + 3.079X - 0.0342 X2 where Y = % removal of applied BOD X = recirculation ratio This equation, specific to the pilot plant, predicts an optimum recirculation ratio of 45 : 1, which is considerably higher than the 10 : 1 ratio commonly used. Successful operation of the plant was achieved at BOD : nitrogen ratios in the feed of 21 - 27 : 1, which are higher than the 20 : 1 maximum generally recommended. Despite this high ratio, typically 30% of the feed organic nitrogen was present in the effluent. There was no evidence of nitrification. The nitrogen balance experiments provided evidence of net nitrogen loss from the suspensions, under aerobic conditions. Denitrification under anaerobic conditions followed normal routes.Item A plan development process for solid and hazardous waste management in the Manawatu-Wanganui region: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy at Massey University(Massey University, 1992) Robson, BridgetThis thesis uses elements of the strategic and integrated planning process models to develop a planning process for solid and hazardous waste management for use by a New Zealand regional council. The desired plan outcomes are that: solid and hazardous waste are managed in such a way and at such a rate that the effects on the environment are mitigated and remedied and detrimental effects on the environment are minimised. This outcome should be achieved at a cost which is socially and economically sustainable by the regional community. The scope of the regional plan will also be restricted/ defined by the roles and mechanisms available to regional councils in New Zealand. The philosophy for solid and hazardous waste management is dynamic. The information and technology are generally available. However, action to prevent and mitigate the effects of bad waste management practices relies primarily on planned and coordinated behavioural change. Political will is therefore very important. The plan process chosen reflects the clear ends desired by the plan and the uncertainty over the means needed to achieve that end. Another problem discovered in the course of this research was the lack of integration between planning theory and planning practice. This thesis attempts to bridge that gap by using 'everyday' language.Item Implementation of solid waste policy objectives in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Environmental Planning at Massey University(Massey University, 1995) Mayes, Kathryn AnnThe purpose of this thesis is to evaluate various instruments available for implementing waste policy, in order to determine the most suitable set of policy instruments for achieving solid waste policy objectives in New Zealand. The thesis will also examine the Government's current waste policy before proceeding with the evaluation of the implementation instruments. "Waste" and related terms have not been adequately defined in New Zealand policy or legislation making it difficult to define the boundaries of the issue. Definitions of "waste" and "solid waste" are therefore proposed. The Government's waste policy is critiqued and amended to provide a policy basis for this thesis and a suggested policy for the Government to adopt. The current policy is considered to be lacking in that it does not clearly set out intended goals and objectives. A new objective is proposed of ensuring that policy and action is focused on areas of highest risk and/or impact through the collection of reliable data on all types of waste. Data on various waste streams are currently sorely lacking. As a result, the Government's waste policy has focused on domestic waste and packaging, as two areas with the highest profile and most reliable data, without determining whether this is the most appropriate action to take. Aspects of the waste policy framework are reviewed, namely: current legislation, development of the current waste policy and the current policy work carried out by the Ministry for the Environment. It is found that the focus of waste policy in the 1970s moved from addressing issues of packaging and limited landfill space, to considering waste as a misplaced resource in the mid-1980s. The change in focus was largely due to the economic climate although it coincided with moves to collect data about waste streams, raising awareness of waste streams which had previously been largely ignored. The Resource Management Act 1991 again altered the focus of waste policy with the emphasis on the "effects" of activities. The risk and/or impact of materials on the environment is now particularly relevant, highlighting the need for adequate information regarding these effects. Although base-line data is necessary, a warning is given to the Ministry for the Environment that this should not lead policy back to "end-of-pipe" solutions. This approach would be inappropriate given the approach of the Resource Management Act 1991 and the inclusion of the waste hierarchy in the Government's waste policy. Each party's perception of their role and responsibility and the roles of the other parties in waste policy decisions were determined by conducting interviews with members of industry and central and local government, and by holding three discussion groups with members of the public of differing ages. From these discussions a national postal survey of householders was undertaken. The survey aimed to identify attitudes and behaviour relating to packaging and resulting waste in New Zealand. Packaging and packaging waste were chosen as the topics of the discussion groups and subsequent survey owing to the amount of resources that has been directed by Government at this segment of the waste stream and the perception that packaging is considered by the public to cause one of the biggest problems in the waste stream. This thesis primarily studies instruments to implement waste policy objectives as it is considered that this aspect is currently not being adequately addressed by the Government's waste policy, the decision-making environment and by the parties involved in waste policy decisions. Implementation instruments for waste policy fall broadly into four groups: Regulation, Economic Instruments, Voluntary Initiatives, and Education and Information. Those instruments that are used most often around the world arc critiqued and their potential application to New Zealand is evaluated. The instruments examined in detail are subsidies, deposit-refund schemes, product charges, user charges, purchasing policies, waste reduction targets, environmental labelling schemes and cleaner production programmes. A number of other instruments are reviewed in less detail. The evaluation of specific instruments' potential application to New Zealand is carried out against the steps of the internationally recognised waste hierarchy, the hierarchy being: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover, Residual Management, as this is an accepted objective of the waste policy. This evaluation enables a review of the actions currently being undertaken by central and local government, industry and the public in this area. Instruments which have the potential to most greatly affect the level of achievement of waste policy in New Zealand are considered to include: i) Regulation clarifying the desired outcomes, objectives and implementation instruments of the waste policy; ii) Regulation defining more of the roles and responsibilities of the parties involved in waste policy decisions; iii) Existing subsidies directed towards cleaner production programmes and 'Waste Analysis Protocol' 1 Ministry for the Environment, Waste Analysis Protocol. Wellington: Ministry for the Environment, December 1992. landfill surveys; iv) User charges for all waste collection, treatment and disposal services; v) Negotiated targets with industry sectors to reduce the amount of waste produced and disposed of; vi) Education and information to ensure that the philosophy of the waste hierarchy is practiced by individuals and organisations. Using a range of instruments covered in this thesis to implement the waste hierarchy will result in a significant move towards the achievement of the accepted goal of the waste policy, that of maximising net benefits to New Zealand.Item Options for solid waste management for Metro Manila, Philippines : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Resource and Environmental Planning at Massey University(Massey University, 1997) Bergonia, Consolacion PazThe Government of the Philippines has considered the solid waste crisis as an urgent national concern. Since devolution Local Government Units, especially in Metro Manila, have had difficulties in coping with the collection of large volume of solid waste generated in the metropolis. The existing landfills and dumpsites are also rapidly reaching their maximum capacities. This study examines and evaluates the existing institutional arrangements in Metro Manila and other countries in the ASEAN for the purpose of generating recommendations for the improvement of solid waste management service delivery in Metro Manila. A framework for evaluation of the institutional arrangements was developed which addresses the following questions: How is solid waste management service treated: is it public or private good/service? What are the roles of the different participants in the solid waste management service delivery chain? What are the operating arrangements in the delivery of solid waste management services? How do the institutional arrangements measure up to the criteria of efficiency, effectiveness, and equity? This framework was used to assess, by survey, arrangements in case studies in the major metropolitan areas of five ASEAN countries (Singapore, Bangkok, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur and Metro Manila). The results of these case studies were used to generate the institutional options for solid waste management for Metro Manila. The research concluded that the appropriate arrangement for Metro Manila is the joint public-private provision of solid waste management services using contracting, franchising, licensing and community arrangements. Contracting and community arrangements have the most advantages in terms of attaining the objectives of efficiency, effectiveness and equity. Franchising and licensing have limited applications because ot equity considerations. This study also generated suggestions for institutional reform for effective solid waste management in Metro Manila: the "do-nothing" or status quo option; individual LGUs to be given collection, recycling, transfer and disposal responsibilities and fiscal autonomy in revenue generation; creation of commissions among LGUs and; creation of a single-purpose Metro Solid Waste Authority. Among the options, the creation of one or more commissions among LGUs appears to be the most feasible option at this point in time as it achieves economies of scale and allows possibilities for building managerial and operational competence among LGUs without loss of local autonomy. In all arrangements, the role of the public sector is critical in the development, negotiation, management, monitoring and enforcement of public-private agreements, and for equity purposes. Whatever arrangement eventuates, government agencies need to implement training and capacity building in SWM.Item Small-scale composting enterprise initiatives : a study of four Jakarta, Indonesia based small-scale composting schemes within the solid waste management framework : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University(Massey University, 2001) Purwanti, Krissanti JuniUrban development creates its own problems. Solid waste management is one of them. The Municipal Government of Jakarta, Indonesia deemed it urgent to cope with this problem in a more integrated manner that includes 'Reduce, Reuse and Recycle' approaches. Composting is deemed importance in the solid waste management process. It process refused materials into fertilizer and, thus, puts them back in the food production cycle. Moreover, since lack of budget is one of the problems in dealing with waste, the growing interest in community-based and participatory approaches and the growing importance of NGOs role, are seen as more economical. This study focuses on the small-scale community-based composting enterprise schemes for the purpose of generating recommendations for the improvement of the scheme within the framework of solid waste management system in Jakarta. A study case was conducted and semi-structured interviews was employed to address the following questions: what were the benefits of the scheme for the people involved and their local neighbourhoods; what were the roles of NGOs and the municipal government in the scheme; what were the methods and approaches applied and how to ensure projects success? A case study framework was used to examine data collected during the field research in order to understand how the small-scale community-based composting schemes could contribute to the municipal solid waste management system in Jakarta. The results of this study were used to generate options to enable the municipal government to improve the scheme implementation in the future. The research concluded that this scheme is beneficial and could help the municipal government in coping with urban solid waste problems, in terms of decreasing the amount of waste to be landfilled, reducing the costs to be borne by the municipal government, providing a better service to those living in a lower socio-economic areas and creating employment opportunities. In the long run, together with the reduce and recycle approaches, it can be headed toward an urban agriculture, to create a more toward self-sufficient urban area. This research also generated suggestions for privatization and encouragement of people's participation through among others, the provision of simpler an easier credit loans schemes, education regarding the importance of compost and the participation of NGOs and other support institutions, such as universities/academic institutions in the process. Amongst the options is to put these organizations in the front line to disseminate information and conduct training on recycling and composting.Item Community-based urban solid waste management : a case study of Suva, Fiji : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University(Massey University, 2007) Will, Anja SabineThe rising solid waste generation and the change of solid waste composition to higher volumes of packaging materials have created concerning health and environmental threats in developing cities. Municipal authorities do not possess the necessary capacities to cope with current levels of solid waste generation and its increasing complexity. This often leads to inadequate solid waste services, in particular, in the poorer settlements such as low-income, peri-urban and squatter communities. With this concern in mind, this study attempted to explore effective ways for improving solid waste management in urban developing communities. Using quantitative and qualitative data from three squatter communities in Suva, Fiji, solid waste management was studied in the context of a Pacific Island country. Household interviews, observations and informal walks were carried out in the selected communities. For the purpose of contextual knowledge, semi-structured interviews were conducted with several organisations and authorities concerned with urban development and solid waste management in Suva. This study argues that the usage of unsafe solid waste practices, such as burning, burying and dumping of waste in the approached communities, are a result of an absence of sound solid waste storage and disposal facilities, lack of awareness and knowledge, and the lack of partnerships between the communities and governmental authorities and also between communities and non-governmental organisations in Suva. Furthermore, this study argues that top-down communication caused through hierarchical structures, has created passive communities, which alone cannot manage external and internal pressures, including rising solid waste accumulation. At the same time, strained social structures due to increasingly diverse communities, pressing land issues and the disintegration of traditional networks, within the communities studied, have decreased community cohesiveness and thus the participation in communal activities, such as cleaning campaigns. This study concludes that effective and trustful partnerships between communities and public and private agencies have to be established in order to successfully implement alternative solutions for the provision of solid waste services in urban communities. Considering the increasing heterogeneity and vulnerability of urban communities, affordable and holistic strategies, which address the root cause of rising solid waste problems, are necessary. Policy makers have to put more emphasis on the needs of the urban poor and marginalised communities in order to reduce inequalities and poverty.