Dental fluorosis caused by volcanic degassing in West Ambrym, Vanuatu : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Earth Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Date
2006
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Massey University
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Abstract
Fluorosis, both dental and skeletal, is a disease afflicting millions of people worldwide and is caused primarily by the ingestion of fluoride-rich drinking water. Usually, this is groundwater that has leached fluoride from underlying rock deposits. In West Ambrym. Vanuatu, however, the indigenous people live in close proximity to a degassing volcano and harvest rainwater for their potable water needs. The current project investigated two hypotheses; firstly, that dental fluorosis existed in West Ambrym and secondly, that it was caused by the ingestion of rainwater contaminated by the degassing volcanic plume. A dental survey was undertaken of children ayed 6 to 18 years using the Dean's Index of Fluorosis. A total of 835 children participated; 253 of whom came from the target area of West Ambrym. For comparative analysis and a more regional perspective, the remaining 582 surveyed were from other nearby locations. Drinking water, non-drinking water and food samples were collected for fluoride analyses. Dental fluorosis prevalence was found to be 96% in West Ambrym, 85% in Malakula, 71% in North Ambrym, 61% in Southeast Ambrym, 36% in Tongoa, 43% in an 'incidental islands' group, and 100% on Tanna. Drinking water samples from West Ambrym ranged from 0.7 to 9.5 ppm F (average 4.2 ppm F). Groundwater sources ranged from 1.8 to 2.8 ppm F (average 2.2 ppm F). Of the 158 drinking water samples, 99% were over the World Health Organisation recommended concentration of 1.0 ppm F. It was found that pH was not a suitable proxy for fluoride concentration. That painted and/or rusted corrugated iron roofing may play a role in lowering fluoride concentration of stored rainwater was a tentative finding. Coconut juice was a rich source of fluoride. Food samples ranged from <6 ppm F to over 100 ppm F. The current research has shown that the semi-continuously degassing of Ambrym volcano is introducing significant levels of fluoride into the drinking water of the local Ni-vanuatu. This geo-meteorological process has resulted in the development of widespread dental fluorosis in West Ambrym. The pathway of fluoride-enriched rainwater identified in this study has not previously been recognised in the aetiology of fluorosis. Defluoridation, or accessing an alternative water source, accompanied by modified rainwater harvesting practices, are means by which the prevalence of the disease can be markedly reduced.
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Vanuatu Dental surveys, Mottled enamel, Dringing water contamination