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Item A history of lameness is associated with reduced proportions of collagen type I relative to type III in the digital cushions of dairy cattle(Elsevier B.V., 2025-12) Wilson JP; Green MJ; Randall LV; Huxley JN; Alibhai A; Ferguson HJ; Rutland CSHoof horn lesions (HHL) are a highly prevalent and recurrent causes of lameness in dairy cattle globally. The digital cushion is composed of 3 cylinders of adipose tissue embedded in a system of collagenous connective tissue, which are designed to reduce the risk of HHL onset. Previous research has identified that animals with a history of lameness and HHL are more likely to have a reduced digital cushion volume in their lateral digits, but the impact on the histological structure remains unknown. Collagen is an important fibril related to adipose tissue structure and function, but its role in the digital cushion is poorly understood. Our study aimed to examine the proportions of type I and type III collagen within the digital cushions of dairy cattle at cull, and to investigate associations with digital cushion volume, lameness, and HHL occurrence throughout the animal's life. This retrospective cohort study resulted in 599 digital cushions being dissected from the hind feet of 54 animals. Digital cushion tissue underwent picrosirius red staining, combined with systematic random sampling and collagen content analysis. The results described the relative proportions of type I and type III collagen. The proportion of type I collagen was used as the outcome variable in multivariable linear regression models. The median (minimum–maximum) proportion of collagen that was type I contained within the lateral and medial digits was 56.2% (23.6%–83.8%) and 59.6% (13.3%–92.7%) respectively. The proportion of type I collagen was lower in animals that had a history of HHL and lameness throughout their lives. Animals with a lower BCS at cull or that were culled at a later parity had less type I collagen in their lateral digits at cull. Animals with a higher digital cushion volume also had an increased proportion of type I collagen in their lateral digits at cull. Our results have highlighted the histological impact that HHL have on the structure of the digital cushion. We hypothesized that localized inflammation associated with HHL was associated with a remodeling of the adipose tissue within the digital cushion, which would predispose the individual to a future of lameness and HHL.Item Effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, therapeutic hoof trimming, and orthopedic block application on lameness in multiparous dairy cattle: A randomized controlled trial(Elsevier Inc for the American Dairy Science Association, USA, 2025-04) Wilson JP; Green MJ; Randall LV; Rutland CS; Bell NJ; Hemingway-Arnold H; Thompson JS; Bollard NJ; Huxley JNHoof horn lesions are recurrent in nature and cause long-term pathological challenges to the functional anatomy of the hoof in dairy cattle. It is hypothesized that inflammation is a driver of these pathological changes. It has previously been identified that routine treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) at first and subsequent calving and lameness events is important in reducing the future risk of lameness in dairy heifers. The effects NSAID administration has on lameness outcomes for multiparous dairy cattle is unknown. We conducted a 34-mo randomized controlled trial to investigate the effects of routine administration of the NSAID ketoprofen during treatment for lameness and at calving on the future probability of lameness and culling caused by exposure to normal farm conditions. Dairy cattle that had calved at least once were recruited from a single herd and randomly allocated to 1 of 4 treatments controlling for parity, proportion of occasions scored as lame 8 wk before study onset, and DIM. All lactating animals were scored for lameness every 2 wk to identify lame animals requiring treatment. Animals in group 1 received a therapeutic trim and an orthopedic hoof block (if deemed necessary) every time they were treated for lameness. Animals in group 2 received a 3-d course of ketoprofen (single dose daily) alongside the same treatment given in group 1 every time they were treated for lameness. Animals in group 3 received a 3-d course of ketoprofen (single dose daily) starting 24 to 36 h after each calving alongside the same treatment given in group 2 for lameness. Animals in group 4 received a 3-d course of ketoprofen (single dose daily) every time they were identified with lameness, with no therapeutic trim, unless they were identified as severely lame (a single score ≥3a). Animals were followed for the 34-mo duration of the study. Independent lameness outcome scores were collected every 2 wk by technicians who were blinded to treatment group to assess the probability of lameness. Culling data were extracted from farm records. A total of 425 animals were recruited to the study (105 in group 1, 107 in group 2, 107 in group 3, and 106 in group 4), with data from 412 animals included in the final analysis (102 in group 1, 102 in group 2, 106 in group 3, and 102 in group 4). The effect of treatment group on the ongoing probability of lameness was evaluated through the use of mixed effect logistic regression models. Compared with animals in group 1, animals in group 4 were significantly more likely to be identified as lame throughout the study period. No effect on the risk of severe lameness was identified. The effect of group on time to culling was investigated using a Cox proportional hazards model. No benefit of the NSAID or hoof trimming intervention on culling risk was identified. Our results highlight the importance of frequent therapeutic trimming and the application of orthopedic blocks in the treatment of lameness in multiparous animals that may have a history of calving and lameness without NSAID administration.Item Stochastic simulation modeling of the economics of providing additional living space for housed dairy cows(Frontiers Media SA, Switzerland, 2024) Thompson JS; Hudson CD; Huxley JN; Kaler J; Green MJ; Oikonomou GThe housed environment for dairy cattle is of critical importance to their health, wellbeing, and productivity. Lack of space is an important factor for housing quality assessment due to links with increased likelihood of disease. A recently published randomized controlled trial identified that greater living space provision increased lying time, milk volume production, and also increased time to conception. However, despite probable improvements in cow welfare, the question remains as to whether offering increased living space is a cost-effective option for farmers. The costs associated with financing new housing facilities are escalating, and the industry urgently requires an evidence base for ensuring these investments are financially sustainable. This research used stochastic simulation modeling to explore theoretical net returns on infrastructure investment differences between two living space scenarios (3 m2 vs. 6.5 m2). A cow entered a simulation at the point of first calving, and milk production, reproductive performance, and points of exit were stochastically determined over the cow’s lifetime simultaneously based on living space scenario. This allowed for direct financial comparison over specified sets of parameter inputs. Where cows exited the herd within their second to fourth lactation, the median difference in financial return was observed to be +£87.61 per cow per year (mean + £86.74). The estimated return on investment to provide extra living space access varied dependent on provision method, interest rates, and loan repayment duration. Under the circumstances and contexts investigated, the results suggest that building for increased living space would be cost-effective. When building a new shed with a high living space versus control at a 4.00% interest rate, a median net return on infrastructure investment of +£23.00 per cow per year was identified (range –£25.91 to +£64.16 for 10th to 90th percentile). Since decreased living space is likely to lead to poorer welfare, it can be considered a negative production externality associated with current production systems, the cost of which should also be accounted for when analyzing the economics of housing. Further research is essential to gain a complete understanding of the cost-effectiveness of providing increased living space per cow under different management scenarios.Item Can lameness prevalence in dairy herds be predicted from farmers' reports of their motivation to control lameness and barriers to doing so? An observational study from New Zealand.(Elsevier B.V., 2024-04-01) Mason WA; Laven LJ; Huxley JN; Laven RAUnderstanding what motivates and prevents behavioral change in farmers is a critical step in disease control in dairy cattle. A total of 101 New Zealand dairy farmers across 8 regions were randomly enrolled into a cross-sectional study to investigate farmer barriers and motivators to lameness control for cows managed 100% at pasture and the relationship between these responses and the true lameness status on farm. Trained technicians lameness scored all lactating cows on the enrolled farms on 2 occasions during one lactation. Farm-level prevalence proportions were calculated as the mean of the 2 lameness scores. Enrolled farmers were asked their perception of lameness in the current milking season and responded to 26 ordinal Likert-type items with 5 options ranging from not important at all to extremely important. The questions were grouped under 3 categories; barriers to lameness control (n = 9), impacts of lameness (n = 10), and motivators to control lameness (n = 7). The association between farmer perception of lameness and lameness prevalence was reported using linear regression. Multiple-factor analysis was conducted to identify latent variable themes within the responses. Linear discriminant analysis was used to assess whether barriers, impacts, and motivators could be used to predict farmer perception of lameness and lameness prevalence. Lameness prevalence was 0.8% greater on farms where farmers perceived lameness as a moderate or a major problem compared with farms where the farmer perceived lameness as a minor problem or not a problem. Farmers ranked all potential motivators to lameness control as important and declared few barriers to be important at preventing them from controlling lameness. Feeling sorry for lame cows and pride in a healthy herd were the most important motivators, with lack of time and skilled labor the most important barriers. The most important effects of lameness were cow-related factors such as pain and production, with farm and industry impacts of less importance. Farmers place different weightings of importance on barriers to lameness control compared with motivators for lameness control. The impacts and motivators were strongly correlated with the first dimension from the multiple-factor analysis, with only weak correlation between barriers and the first dimension. Linear discriminant analysis identified that the importance that farmers place on barriers, motivators, and impacts of lameness were poor predictors of farmers' belief in regard to their lameness problem or actual lameness prevalence (above or below the median lameness prevalence for the study cohort). Despite relatively low lameness prevalence, many New Zealand dairy farmers believe lameness is a problem on their farm, and they rank welfare effects of lameness of high importance. To investigate how farmer behavior change can be used to manage lameness, future studies should consider theoretical social science frameworks beyond the theory of planned behavior or involve prospective interventional studies investigating farmer actions instead of beliefs.Item Farm-level risk factors and treatment protocols for lameness in New Zealand dairy cattle.(Taylor and Francis Group, 2024-05-08) Mason WA; Müller KR; Laven LJ; Huxley JN; Laven RAAims To identify farm-level risk factors for dairy cow lameness, and to describe lameness treatment protocols used on New Zealand dairy farms. Methods One hundred and nineteen farms from eight veterinary clinics within the major dairying regions of New Zealand were randomly enrolled into a cross-sectional lameness prevalence study. Each farmer completed a questionnaire on lameness risk factors and lameness treatment and management. Trained observers lameness scored cattle on two occasions, between October–December (spring, coinciding with peak lactation for most farms) and between January–March (summer, late lactation for most farms). A four-point (0–3) scoring system was used to assess lameness, with animals with a lameness score (LS) ≥2 defined as lame. At each visit, all lactating animals were scored including animals that had previously been identified lame by the farmer. Associations between the farmer-reported risk factors and lameness were determined using mixed logistic regression models in a Bayesian framework, with farm and score event as random effects. Results A lameness prevalence of 3.5% (2,113/59,631) was reported at the first LS event, and 3.3% (1,861/55,929) at the second LS event. There was a median prevalence of 2.8% (min 0, max 17.0%) from the 119 farms. Most farmers (90/117; 77%) relied on informal identification by farm staff to identify lame animals. On 65% (75/116) of farms, there was no external provider of lame cow treatments, with the farmer carrying out all lame cow treatments. Most farmers had no formal training (69/112; 62%). Animals from farms that used concrete stand-off pads during periods of inclement weather had 1.45 times the odds of lameness compared to animals on farms that did not use concrete stand-off pads (95% equal-tailed credible interval 1.07–1.88). Animals from farms that reported peak lameness incidence from January to June or all year-round, had 0.64 times odds of lameness compared to animals from farms that reported peak lameness incidence from July to December (95% equal-tailed credible interval 0.47–0.88). Conclusions Lameness prevalence was low amongst the enrolled farms. Use of concrete stand-off pads and timing of peak lameness incidence were associated with odds of lameness. Clinical relevance Veterinarians should be encouraging farmers to have formal lameness identification protocols and lameness management plans in place. There is ample opportunity to provide training to farmers for lame cow treatment. Management of cows on stand-off pads should consider the likely impact on lameness.Item Morphology, adipocyte size, and fatty acid analysis of dairy cattle digital cushions, and the effect of body condition score and age(Elsevier Inc and Fass Inc on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association, 2021-05) Newsome RF; Mostyn A; Wilson JP; Alibhai A; Bollard N; Randall L; Chagunda MGG; Sturrock CJ; Keane M; Green M; Huxley JN; Rutland CSThe digital cushion is an essential part of maintaining a healthy foot, working to dissipate foot strike and body weight forces and lameness from claw horn disruption lesions. Despite the importance of the digital cushion, little is known about the basic anatomy, adipocyte morphology, and fatty acid composition in relation to age, limb position, and body condition score. In total, 60 claws (from 17 cows) were selected and collected from a herd, ensuring that body condition score data and computed micro-tomography were known for each animal. Digital cushion tissue underwent histological staining combined with stereology, systematic random sampling, and cell morphology analysis, in addition to lipid extraction followed by fatty acid analysis. The results describe digital cushion architecture and adipocyte sizes. Adipocyte size was similar across all 4 claws (distal left lateral and medial and distal right lateral and medial) and across the ages (aged 2–7 yr); however, animals with body condition score of 3.00 or more at slaughter had a significantly increased cell size in comparison to those with a score of less than 2.50. Of 37 fatty acid methyl esters identified, 5 differed between either the body condition score or different age groups. C10:0 capric acid, C14:0 myristic acid, C15:0 pentadecanoic acid, and C20:0 arachidic acid percentages were all lesser in lower body condition score cows, whereas C22:1n-9 erucic acid measurements were lesser in younger cows. Saturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acid, and polyunsaturated fatty acid percentages were not altered in the different claws, ages, or body condition score groups. Triglyceride quantities did not differ for claw position or age but had decreased quantities in lower body condition score animals. Digital cushion anatomy, cellular morphology, and fatty acid composition have been described in general and also in animals with differing ages, body condition scores, and in the differing claws. Understanding fat deposition, mobilization, and composition are essential in not only understanding the roles that the digital cushion plays but also in preventing disorders and maintaining cattle health and welfare.Item Hoof lesions in partly housed pasture-based dairy cows(Elsevier Inc and Fass Inc on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association, 2022-11) Browne N; Hudson CD; Crossley RE; Sugrue K; Huxley JN; Conneely MLameness is a symptom of a painful disorder affecting the limbs, which impacts dairy cow welfare and productivity. Lameness is primarily caused by hoof lesions. The prevalence of different lesion types can differ depending on environmental conditions and farm management practices. The aims of this observational study were to establish the cow-level and herd-level lesion prevalence during both housing and grazing periods in a partly housed, pasture-based system, establish the prevalence of lesions always associated with pain (“alarm” lesion), identify the lesions associated with a higher lameness score, determine relationships between lesions, and identify risk factors for digital dermatitis. On 98 farms during the grazing period and on 74 of the same farms during the housing period, every cow was lameness scored (0–3 lameness scoring scale), and the hind hooves of lame cows (score 2 and 3) were examined (maximum 20 cows per visit) and the prevalence of each lesion type recorded. To gather data on potential predictors for the risk factor analysis, a questionnaire with the farmer was conducted on lameness management practices and infrastructure measurements were taken at each visit. Cow-level data were also collected (e.g., parity, breed, milk yield, and so on). Noninfectious lesions were found to be more prevalent than infectious lesions in this system type. The most prevalent lesion types during both grazing and housing periods were white line separation, sole hemorrhages and overgrown claws; all remaining lesions had a cow-level prevalence of less than 15%. The cow-level prevalence of alarm lesions was 19% during the grazing period and 25% during the housing period; the most prevalent alarm lesion was sole ulcers during both periods. We found significantly more foreign bodies within the hoof sole (grazing = 14%, housing = 7%) and overgrown claws (grazing = 71%, housing = 55%) during the grazing period compared with the housing period. Cows with foul of the foot, sole ulcer, white line abscess, toe necrosis or an amputated claw had higher odds of being more severely lame, compared with mildly lame. The strongest correlation between lesions were between toe necrosis and digital dermatitis (r = 0.40), overgrown claws and corkscrew claws (r = 0.33), and interdigital hyperplasia and digital dermatitis (r = 0.31) at herd level. At the cow level, the strongest correlation was between overgrown claws and corkscrew claws (r = 0.27), and digital dermatitis and heel erosion (r = 0.22). The farmers' perception of the presence of digital dermatitis (and lameness) was significantly correlated with the actual presence of digital dermatitis recorded. Additional risk factors for the presence of digital dermatitis were cow track and verge width near the collecting yard, and stone presence on the cow tracks. Results from this study help further our understanding of the causes of lameness in partly housed, pasture-based dairy cows, and can be used to guide prevention and treatment protocols.Item Assessing the Feasibility of Retrospective and Prospective Clinical Audit in Farm Animal Veterinary Practice(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2021-04) Waine K; White C; Dean RS; Hudson C; Huxley JN; Brennan MLAs a quality improvement tool, clinical audit has been extensively described in the medical literature. There is scant literature on the use of clinical audit in the farm animal veterinary setting. This study describes the process and feasibility of prospective and retrospective data collection for farm animal clinical audit performed at three different farm animal practices in the United Kingdom. Retrospective clinical audit was difficult in all three practices due to barriers in establishing diagnosis and patient identity from clinical records. Prospective data collection proved feasible but depended on adequate case accrual and practitioner engagement. The decision to conduct clinical audit retrospectively or prospectively will depend on the topic to audit, the availability of data and the wishes of the team members involved. Further work is required looking at the use of clinical coding and alternatives to using practice management software to improve retrospective data availability for clinical audit.Item Lameness prevalence and management practices on Irish pasture-based dairy farms(BioMed Central Ltd, 2022-06-08) Browne N; Hudson CD; Crossley RE; Sugrue K; Kennedy E; Huxley JN; Conneely MBackground Lameness is a painful disease, which negatively impacts dairy cow production and welfare. The aim of this observational study was to determine herd lameness prevalence, describe current lameness management practices and identify the presence of established risk factors for lameness on Irish pasture-based dairy farms. Farms were visited once during grazing (99 farms) and again during housing (85 farms). Lameness scoring was carried out at each visit (AHDB 0–3 scale); cows were classified as lame if they scored two or three. Farm management practices and infrastructure characteristics were evaluated via farmer questionnaires and direct measurements of farm infrastructure. Results Median herd-level lameness prevalence was 7.9% (interquartile range = 5.6 – 13.0) during grazing and 9.1% (interquartile range = 4.9 – 12.0) during housing; 10.9% of cows were lame at a single visit and 3.5% were lame at both visits (chronically lame or had a repeat episode of lameness). Fifty-seven percent of farmers were not familiar with lameness scoring and only one farm carried out lameness scoring. Only 22% of farmers kept records of lame cows detected, and 15% had a lameness herd health plan. Twenty-eight percent of farmers waited more than 48 h to treat a lame cow, and 21% waited for more than one cow to be identified as lame before treating. Six percent of farmers carried out routine trimming and 31% regularly footbathed (> 12 times per year). Twelve percent put severely lame cows in a closer paddock and 8% stated that they used pain relief to treat severely lame cows. Over 50% of farms had at least one cow track measurement that was classified as rough or very rough, and cow tracks were commonly narrow for the herd size. On 6% of farms, all cubicle beds were bare concrete (no matting or bedding) and on a further 6% of farms, there was a combination of cubicles with and without matting or bedding. On 56% of farms, all pens contained less than 1.1 cubicles per cow and on 28% of farms, a proportion of pens contained less than 1.1 cubicles per cow. Conclusions Overall, this study identified infrastructure and management practices which could be improved upon. The comparatively low lameness prevalence demonstrated, compared to fully housed systems, also highlights the benefits of a pasture-based system for animal welfare; however, there remains scope for improvement.Item Cow- and herd-level risk factors for lameness in partly housed pasture-based dairy cows(Elsevier Inc and Fass Inc on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association, 2022-02) Browne N; Hudson CD; Crossley RE; Sugrue K; Kennedy E; Huxley JN; Conneely MLameness in dairy cows is a major animal welfare concern and has substantial economic impact through reduced production and fertility. Previous risk factor analyses have focused on housed systems, rather than those where cows were grazed for the majority of the year and housed only for the winter period. Therefore, the aim of this observational study was to identify a robust set of cow-level and herd-level risk factors for lameness in a pasture-based system, based on predictors from the housing and grazing periods. Ninety-nine farms were visited during the grazing period (April 2019–September 2019), and 85 farms were revisited during the housing period (October 2019–February 2020). At each visit, all lactating cows were scored for lameness (0 = good mobility, 1 = imperfect mobility, 2 = impaired mobility, 3 = severely impaired mobility), and potential herd-level risk factors were recorded through questionnaires and infrastructure measurements. Routine cow-level management data were also collected. Important risk factors for lameness were derived though triangulation of results from elastic net regression, and from logistic regression model selection using modified Bayesian information criterion. Both selection methods were implemented using bootstrapping. This novel approach has not previously been used in a cow-level or herd-level risk factor analysis in dairy cows, to the authors' knowledge. The binary outcome variable was lameness status, whereby cows with a lameness score of 0 or 1 were classed as non-lame and cows with a score of 2 or 3 were classed as lame. Cow-level risk factors for increased lameness prevalence were age and genetic predicted transmitting ability for lameness. Herd-level risk factors included farm and herd size, stones in paddock gateways, slats on cow tracks near the collecting yard, a sharper turn at the parlor exit, presence of digital dermatitis on the farm, and the farmers' perception of whether lameness was a problem on the farm. This large-scale study identified the most important associations between risk factors and lameness, based on the entire year (grazing and housing periods), providing a focus for future randomized clinical trials.