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    Dual earner couples : work commitment and quality of life within career stages : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1994) Murphy, Bridget Mary
    The present study focused on the impact of dual earner couple status on work commitment, quality of life and the interaction between quality of work life and marital dissatisfaction, within career stages. The study was based on Super's career theory and theories of the work-family relationship. Dual earner couples were defined as couples in which both partners were employed full-time. A sample of 164 white-collar, dual earner men and women (79 couples and 6 individuals) were surveyed at an academic institution. Half of the couples were parents. There were no sex or parenting differences in work commitment (occupational commitment and job involvement) when income, age and career stage were used as covariates. High salience in work and family was not associated with diminished work commitment, but professional women who had non-professional partners had significantly lower job involvement than those who had professional partners. Secondly, quality of life and marital dissatisfaction were investigated. Quality of life and marital dissatisfaction did not differ across age, career stages or parenting. Furthermore, quality of life did not differ by couples' level of work and family salience, work commitment, or egalitarianism. Thirdly, a segmentation relationship was found which meant that people tend to compartmentalize their marital and work roles, rather than have spillover of affect between the two roles or compensate for dissatisfactions in one role with rewards in another. Unexpectedly, work-family conflict did not differ by age or career stage. However, parents of teenagers did experience significantly greater work­ family conflict than all others. Men in egalitarian couples and men in couples for whom both family and work were highly salient for both partners perceived greater work-family conflict than other men. Professional women with professional partners experienced significantly less work-family conflict than those with non-professional partners. The trend of declining sex differences in work commitment, quality of life and work-family conflict is continuing. It is suggested that employers need not be wary of employing women and parents if they can provide good childcare facilities and equal employment opportunities policies.
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    Equestrian sport and the work-life interface : an exploratory study on the combination of horses, family and work in competitive, working horse riders : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) Craies, Susannah
    This study investigated the work-life interface and individual outcomes in a novel population of working, equestrian athletes. Work-life balance, enrichment and conflict were investigated under the premise that non-work roles other than family may significantly influence individual and organisational outcomes. Competitive equestrian athletes working outside of equestrian sport (N=100) completed a questionnaire on work-life balance, enrichment, conflict, coping, satisfaction, perceived stress, commitment and performance. Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the use of modified scales in this population, and alluded to important relationships between variables. Consistent with previous research in the work-life field, this study found significant relationships between work-life balance and enrichment and positive individual outcomes such as life satisfaction, job satisfaction, performance and stress. This study also found significant relationships between work-life conflict and negative individual outcomes. Additionally, this study found work commitment and equestrian sport commitment significantly influenced work-life balance enrichment and conflict. This study concludes that the combination of equestrian sport, work and family is important to consider under the umbrella of work-life balance, enrichment and conflict. In summary, whether equestrian athletes experience positive or negative psychological and performance outcomes is greatly influenced by work-life balance, enrichment, conflict and commitment to roles. Further research should move beyond this exploratory study to further investigate how these variables interact in larger, more complex models.
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    Correlates of the use and perceived importance of family friendly initiatives : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2001) Pianina, Jenny
    The present research investigated the relationship between family friendly initiatives (FFIs) and work-family conflict (WFC), performance, psychological strain, and turnover intent. In addition to considering the use of FFIs the current study also examined the perceived importance of FFIs, currently a neglected variable in FFI research. The importance of considering factors that may impact on the relationship between the use of FFIs and outcomes was also addressed in the current study by examining several support variables both within and outside the organisation, as well as psychological job involvement and effort in the work and family domains. Respondents were from one large New Zealand organisation that had well established FFIs in place. A self-report questionnaire was developed that contained items from existing scales as well as some items developed specifically for the current research. Overall 169 male and female employees returned useable questionnaires resulting in a response rate of 51 percent. As expected women perceived FFIs to be more important than men, but only those women with dependents. Interestingly the men in the current study showed higher levels of WFC than the women. In terms of 'outcomes' use of FFIs was positively related to intention to stay, this relationship was mediated though by team leader support and the work-family balance dimension of organisational support. Use of FFIs was also positively related to psychological strain suggesting that as strain increases so does the use of FFIs. Limitations of the current research along with suggestions for future research.
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    Non-work participation & work attitudes : a test of the expansion model of personal resources mediated by self-efficacy : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1994) Jennings, Maurice James
    This study attempted to provide support for Marks' (1977) 'expansion' model as applied to the work-family relationship. Essentially, the model predicted that participation in the non-work domain would enrich our personal resources such as time, energy and commitment It was also hypothesized that these resources would be positively associated with four work attitudes (i.e., organizational commitment, occupational commitment, job satisfaction, and job involvement). Moreover, it was further hypothesized that the resource enrichment - work attitude link would be mediated by self-efficacy. The four work attitudes however, were not correlated with time spent, and involvement in three non-work domains (i.e., parenting, community and recreation/hobby), although the work attitudes were positively correlated with the resource provided by participation in non-work activities. With the failure of self-efficacy to mediate the relationship between resource enrichment and the work attitudes, The overall conclusion therefore, was that the 'expansion' model of the work-family link was not supported. A number of reasons were put forward and discussed, as to why the data failed to support the hypotheses, this included the identification of several limitations. Suggestions for future research into the work-family relationship were then put forward.
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    Cultural adaptation and career interruption in expatriate women in the South Pacific : a case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1999) Comfort, Venise
    This thesis investigates the domestic and social lives of expatriate women in the Cook Islands and New Zealand, using in-depth interviews and a feminist analysis of their social role. The study centres on the career interruption experiences of contemporary expatriate women from a perspective that understands this decision within the context of power, gender, and marriage. In addition, the thesis focuses on gender-specific cross-cultural adaptation and transition concerns. In doing so, the study highlights the role of domestic social networks both as a form of resistance to and a reinforcement of gender-assigned domestic labour. The thesis also includes a historical analysis of colonial expatriate women in the South Pacific. Using a qualitative methodology, the research also investigates key aspects of expatriate women's experience including leisure, work, and the family.
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    Family friendly workplaces, the work/family interface and their relation to work outcomes among working parents : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1999) Stanley, Annemarie
    Work/family conflict, family/work conflict, satisfaction with child care, the positive outcomes from combining work and family roles and social support were investigated as potential moderators and mediators between the two independent variables of family friendly policies and supervisor support and the dependent variables of job satisfaction, membership behaviours, organisational commitment and general health. Two models were devised to examine these relationships. A work/family questionnaire was distributed through nine New Zealand organisations, which were selected from the list of work/family network members. There were 121 complete questionnaires returned (giving a response rate of 29%) from working parents who had at least one child under the age of 18 years living at home. Work/family conflict and family/work conflict were found to be positively correlated however they were also found to be associated with unique antecedents and outcomes providing support for their independence as separate constructs. Hierarchical multiple regression techniques were utilised to examine the relationships between potential mediators and moderators, the independent variables of organisation policy and supervisor support and several outcomes. Three significant moderated relationships were identified with respect to the outcome of "intention to leave". There are several conclusions to be drawn from this study regarding the importance of supervisor support, the distinction between work/family conflict and family/work conflict and the different needs of working parents.
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    Employee perceptions of support for family friendly initiatives in the workplace : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1999) McAulay, Fiona Elizabeth
    The present research investigated the relationships between levels of work-family/family-work conflict, the use of family friendly initiatives, and levels of perceived supervisor, co-worker, and overall organisational support. It has been suggested that the use and effectiveness of family friendly initiatives may be compromised due to unsupportive supervisor attitudes, co-workers, and organisational cultures. Thus, the relative importance of family friendly initiatives and informal workplace supports for the reduction of work-family conflict, and the influence of informal workplace supports on the use of these initiatives were of particular interest. Participants were employees in four medium to large organisations that were members of the Equal Employment Opportunities Trust, Work and Family Network. A questionnaire was developed that included existing scales as well as original items. Overall, 279 male and female employees returned useable questionnaires (a response rate of 37%). No significant relationships were found between the use of family friendly initiatives and work-family or family-work conflict. However, significant relationships were found between levels of work-family conflict and supervisor, co-worker, and overall workplace support. These informal workplace supportive variables were also shown to be more important to the prediction of work-family and family-work conflict, than was the use of family friendly initiatives. Levels of work-family conflict were greater for men than for women, and men's use of family friendly initiatives was significantly related to their perceptions of informal workplace support. No such relationship was found for women. The research demonstrated that informal workplace support was more important to the reduction of work-family and family-work conflict than the number of initiatives used. The importance of work-family conflict to men was highlighted, demonstrating the relevance of family friendly initiatives for both genders. The attitudes and expectations in the workplace that limit the use of initiatives, particularly by men, need to be changed. When introducing a family friendly programme, the needs of employees, the quality of the initiatives, the attitudes of supervisors and co-workers, and the expectations and structure of work within the organisation, must all be addressed to ensure that employees feel able to make use of the family friendly initiatives available.
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    Psychological capital as a positive resource to assist with the organisational outcomes of work family conflict : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Yardley, Katherine
    Psychological Capital (PsyCap) is a powerful positive personal resource with the ability to enhance an individual’s success within a working environment. In this study the effect PsyCap has on the organisational outcomes of Work Family Conflict (WFC) was investigated, using a sample of working parents within New Zealand. The Job Demands-Resources model was used to focus on job stress, burnout and engagement stemming from WFC, and the effect of PsyCap has on these, within individuals returning to work. It was hypothesised that PsyCap would have a positive relationship with engagement, and a negative relationship with job stress and burnout. Additionally it was hypothesised that PsyCap would act as a mediator and moderator variable in relationships between WFC and engagement, job stress and burnout. As PsyCap is malleable, and therefore open to development within individuals, it provides an opportunity for organisations to enhance the success of employees, in particular people reintegrating into the workforce after a period of time away. A self report questionnaire was used to measure PsyCap, WFC, Engagement, Job Stress and Burnout within 108 parents or caregivers within professional occupations who had returned to work over the past 12 months. Analyses looking for correlation, mediation and moderation showed that PsyCap had a positive relationship with engagement, and a negative relationship with burnout and job stress. PsyCap was demonstrated to partially mediate the relationship between WFC and burnout, and additionally with job stress. PsyCap was not shown to mediate the relationship between WFC and engagement. PsyCap was found to moderate the WFC and engagement relationship, showing individuals with higher levels of PsyCap possess higher levels of engagement, even with increased levels of WFC; however PsyCap was not a moderating variable in the WFC and job stress or burnout relationships. This indicates that PsyCap has an effect upon some of the organisational outcomes of WFC, and is worthy of further investigation to enhance the success, wellbeing and performance of employees returning to work after parental leave. This study emphasises the positive value of growing PsyCap in individuals returning to the workforce, and also those already within organisations.
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    The effects of short-term repeated work-related separations on pilots, cabin crew, and their partners : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Ward, Rachel Helen; Ward, Rachel Helen
    Separations from a spouse or intimate partner due to work are becoming increasingly common in industrialised societies. Previous research has focused on military and long-term work-related separations, mainly examining the reactions of the partners at home. The partners at home have been almost exclusively female and have been in heterosexual relationships. In addition to the gender bias and the focus on the partners at home, there are other limitations to the findings of previous studies. These limitations include the absence of stated hypotheses or theories and the lack of a control group. Results from previous studies on both long-term and short-term work-related separations indicate that the separations have negative effects on both the individuals' health and on their marriages or intimate relationships. The present research examined in the aviation industry the relationship between short-term work-related separations and aspects of physical and mental health. The primary aims of the present study included studying female and male travelling partners (international crew) and partners at home (partners of international crew) who were in heterosexual and same-gender relationships. In addition, both qualitative and quantitative research methods were utilised, together with a control group of national flight crew and their partners who were not considered to be separated due to their work. The present research consisted of three studies; interviews of international crew which were qualitatively examined (Part 1); and two studies (the crew study and the partner study) using a survey which collected both quantitative and qualitative data (Part 2). In the first part of the research, most international crew reported that work-related separations had some adverse effects on themselves individually and on their relationships. In particular, all crew reported that loneliness was a key factor which they attributed to the separations. From this finding of the widespread reporting of loneliness, a model of the moderating process of loneliness on the relationship between separation and physical and mental health was proposed. This theory was tested in the second part of the research using hierarchical multiple regressions. However, results from the second part of the research failed to support the proposed moderating role of loneliness for either crew or their partners. Although no interaction effect was discovered, loneliness was a significant predictor of all six physical and mental health outcome variables for crew, and three of the outcome variables for partners. In addition, loneliness was claimed to be the most difficult problem of the work-related separations for both international crew and their partners in the qualitative section of the surveys. By comparing results from international crew and international partners with the control groups of national crew and national partners, the present study concluded that claims of the effects of repeated short-term work-related separations have been exaggerated. There were few differences between those who were separated and those who were not, in terms of aspects of physical and mental health. Those crew who were separated reported higher levels of psychological distress and higher levels of physical health symptoms than crew who were not separated. Partners who were separated were more likely to report lower levels of job satisfaction than partners who were not separated. When crew and partners were compared, international crew reported higher levels of psychological distress, physical health symptoms, and lower levels of job satisfaction than international partners. In addition, international crew reported higher levels of self-rated health. However, these differences could have been a result of the unique working conditions of flight crew, as the analyses comparing national crew with their partners also found similar differences. The findings of the present study were discussed in terms of the implications for further research, including the need to use a control group. Although few differences were found between those who were separated and those who were not, it was acknowledged that some individuals may be more adversely affected by the separations than others. For these individuals, the effects of work-related separations should not be underestimated because of potential health and safety risks. Implications for organisations and individuals for whom work-related separations are part of their employment were discussed including the need to address the issue of loneliness.
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    Career break or broken career? : mothers' experiences of returning to paid work : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2007) Ang, Ee Kheng
    Servicemen returning from two World Wars were granted assistance in finding work, retraining and other benefits in recognition of the sacrifices they had made. Yet mothers' returning to work after time out bearing and raising children are reliant on a booming economy to obtain even limited entry to the labour market, and the work obtained is very often inferior to the jobs held by women before becoming mothers. Currently due to lower fertility rates and the ageing populations of the world's richer nations, a shortage of working-age people is predicted to continue into at least the middle of the twenty-first century. To overcome this shortfall, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) advises its member states to assist mothers to return to paid work sooner. Most OECD nations are complying, with varying degrees of success. Some policy frameworks make this goal more easily attainable than others. Mothers in liberal welfare states often return to paid work later than they might otherwise prefer. Many returners are overqualified for the work they are doing. While there appears to be relatively few barriers to re-entry, the choice of re-entry occupations are limited and returners are predominantly offered low status jobs with no career opportunities at the back of the job queue and gender queue. Mothers who interrupt their careers by taking a career break for childbearing and rearing generally face downward occupational mobility and loss of lifetime incomes. This thesis assesses the experiences of mothers who return to employment in one liberal nation, New Zealand. It applies Esping-Andersen's three models of welfare states and Reskin and Roos' gender queues model to the situation of returners. The study investigates the precise nature of the obstacles and processes encountered by a number of mothers attempting to resume a career. It argues that social policies matter: returners in countries where state intervention is more widespread and where there is universal, extensive and generous social provision and support for working mothers are economically better off. The research methods include in-depth interviews and a focus group with mothers, a mail questionnaire and interviews with employers, and a study of recent and current New Zealand and overseas government policies to assist working parents. The findings of this thesis are that regardless of skill levels, New Zealand returners are consigned to low status occupations where they are not fully integrated into the 'normal' full-time workforce with career opportunities. These mothers generally suffer more than one episode of returning to the back of the queue. They also earn less (weekly and annually) than mothers who do not take career breaks. The study identifies social policy frameworks and employers' policies and practices as factors contributing to the processes whereby returners are relegated to the back of the queue. Although New Zealand has recently brought in policies to assist mothers to return to paid work these initiatives have not addressed the processes that currently confine returners in low status, part-time employment. Policies similar to those created to specifically target the needs of ex-servicemen would go a long toward assisting mothers to access higher status and better-paid jobs at the head of the queue. The thesis concludes with policy recommendations to facilitate mothers' integration into such jobs.